…this chapter, you will learn the physiological basis of all ECG waves and how to determine whether the ECG is normal or abnormal. Although heart…

…retrograde (inverted) P waves, which can be located anywhere between the J point and the terminal part of the T wave. PR interval 0,22…

…complementary domains: Indicators of acute PE severity , including clinical findings, RV dysfunction on imaging, and myocardial injury shown by laboratory testing. Comorbidity and aggravating conditions …

…failure. These patients experience substantial morbidity and mortality, despite often having a considerable burden of non cardiac comorbidity. HFmrEF has clinical characteristics that, on average…

…facilitates precise reporting and ensures consistent communication of findings across clinicians. Perfusion defects are categorized by their size, encompassing: Small defects : <10% of the left…

…ECG finding is the ST segment depressions. In STE ACS, on the other hand, the ST segment depressions are secondary findings and the primary findings…

…changes. This is due to the fact that pre excitation leads to abnormal depolarization of the ventricles and this leads to abnormal repolarization as well…

…wave amplitude is on average 3 mm in V2–V3 in females and it rarely exceeds 8 mm. Note that the amplitude of the T…

…effect on impulse conduction because digoxin slows impulse conduction. It is important to note that the association between ECG changes and the risk of arrhythmia…

…the sinoatrial node) is a common finding in athletes and during sleep; in these scenarios, it should not be considered abnormal. On the other hand…

…2nd AV block, prolonged QT interval, and profound sinus bradycardia are typically considered abnormal or profound findings that may require further investigation. 2. What heart…

…MI) is a clinical diagnosis that integrates myocardial injury, evidence of acute myocardial ischaemia, electrocardiographic findings, cardiac biomarkers, imaging, angiography, and, occasionally, pathological examination. Pathologically…

…a fundamental neurological examination finding that reflects brainstem (midbrain) function. In the context of cardiac arrest and the post resuscitation period, assessment of the PLR…

…Evaluation and physical examination Initial assessment should establish whether AF is associated with acute haemodynamic compromise, pulmonary oedema, or evidence of coronary ischaemia. These findings…

…retrograde (inverted) P waves, which can be located anywhere between the J point and the terminal part of the T wave. PR interval 0,22…

…systemic inflammation Insulin resistance Abnormal adipokine signalling Endothelial dysfunction Dyslipidaemia A prothrombotic state Albuminuria and declining estimated glomerular filtration rate Development of type 2 diabetes…

…studies of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). The threshold is not absolute: patient phenotype, risk factors for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, echocardiographic findings, and…

…normal finding. The regurgitation results in blood flowing back from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle during diastole. The most common cause of abnormal…

…This is also a normal finding. Abnormal (pathological) causes of sinus bradycardia In all other situations, sinus bradycardia should be regarded as a pathological finding…

…adult Abnormal relaxation (grade 1 dysfunction) Pseudonormal (grade 2 dysfunction) Reversible restrictive filling (grade 3 dysfunction) Irreversible restrictive filling (grade 4 dysfunction) E/A ratio…

…Pulmonary valve morphology normal normal/abnormal abnormal Density CW Doppler weak, slow deceleration variable dense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow Jet width colour…

…for atrial size and volume Women Men Normal range Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal Normal range Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal ATRIAL DIMENSIONS…

…aortic and pulmonary regurgitation (native valve disease). In European journal of echocardiography : the journal of the Working Group on Echocardiography of the European Society of…

…ECG interpretation The QRS complex (ventricular complex): normal and abnormal configurations and intervals A complete QRS complex consists of a Q , R and S wave…

…Drugs and electrolyte imbalance ECG Definition and Pathophysiology Acquired long QT syndrome (LQTS) is characterised by an abnormal prolongation of the QT interval on the…

…myocardial ischaemia caused by transient abnormal vasoconstriction of one or more coronary arteries. Epicardial spasm produces a reversible functional occlusion and usually causes transmural ischaemia…

…ECG diagnosis and management Atrial fibrillation is the most common abnormal tachyarrhythmia (only sinus tachycardia is more common). The prevalence of atrial fibrillation correlates strongly…

…The tests that reflect the synthetic function of the liver are the prothrombin time (INR) , the albumin and the bilirubin — and they become abnormal late…

…increases in heart rate, myocardial contractility and blood pressure. When coronary blood flow cannot increase adequately because of flow limiting disease, myocardial ischaemia may develop…

…presentation depends on the vascular territory involved and may include systemic arterial embolic manifestations. The source material does not provide a detailed catalogue of specific…

…factors include pulmonary disorders, particularly obstructive pulmonary disease, the use of theophylline, and elevated catecholamine states. EAT typically has an abrupt onset, although a brief…

…the presence of an abnormal amount of fluid in the pericardial space. It can be caused by numerous local and systemic disorders. Accumulation of fluid…

…will typically cause abnormal ventricular activation (i.e. contraction). The significance of this will depend on the severity of the conduction defect and the affected…

…Q waves and guidelines do not state any ECG criteria specific to R wave progression. Figure 1. Pathological R wave progression is indicative of previous…

…discussion. A premature ventricular complex is recognized on the ECG as an abnormal and wide QRS complex occurring earlier than expected in the cardiac cycle…

…Lane DA, Lip GYH. Evaluation of the HAS BLED, ATRIA, and ORBIT bleeding risk scores in atrial fibrillation patients on warfarin. Am J Med . 2016…

…2015): Recommendations for cardiac chamber quantification by echocardiography in adults: an update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging…

…Gonzalo; Baumgartner, Helmut et al. (2012): Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease (version 2012). In European heart journal 33 (19), pp. 2451–2496…

…adults with elevated blood pressure (BP), in whom absolute cardiovascular risk varies considerably according to age and the presence of concomitant risk factors. In contrast…

…than 5% of otherwise normal angiograms demonstrate bridging. The wide range reflects differences in ascertainment and imaging technique. Coronary fistulae represent abnormal communications between a…

…morbidity and mortality, despite often having a greater burden of cardiovascular and non cardiovascular comorbidity than patients with reduced EF. Pathophysiology Abnormal ventricular relaxation and…

…leads [7]. These stricter parameters correlate more closely with abnormal LV mechanical function and the potential benefit of resynchronization pacemaker therapy [7]. R Wave Peak…

…metabolic abnormalities; and abnormal pain perception in patients without demonstrable ischaemia. The absence of obstructive disease therefore does not establish a benign diagnosis. ANOCA/INOCA…

…Definition and pathophysiology Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a major independent risk factor for thromboembolism, including ischaemic stroke. This risk applies across the clinical patterns of…

…focuses on practical diagnostic and therapeutic considerations, with recommendations aligned with current guidelines from both the American Heart Association (AHA) and American College of Cardiology…

…Hypocalcemia Causes of hypocalcemia Acute pancreatitis, pancreas surgery, alkalosis (hyperventilation), rhabdomyolysis, septicemia (sepsis), osteolytic cancer metastases, abnormal calcium absorption (gastrointestinal) and resorption (from primary urine)…

…a delayed and abnormal activation sequence of the right ventricle, resulting in a prolonged and abnormal QRS complex on the ECG. The hallmark of right…

…Causes of ventricular rhythm and idioventricular rhythm The usual mechanisms are responsible for all ventricular rhythms. Increased automaticity (in His Purkinje fibers), abnormal automaticity (in…

…The set up and the instructions decide whether the investigation will be usable. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) Indications Confirmation of newly detected hypertension — recommended…

…assessment of pH and the metabolic component, but it should not be regarded as fully interchangeable with an arterial sample [3]. Venous pH is on…

…patient to recite the months of the year backwards. A normal result does not exclude delirium, however, and an abnormal result is not specific to…

…delay treatment of a neurologically compromised patient. Continuous glucose monitoring reflects interstitial glucose and lags behind the blood glucose during rapid changes. Pressure on the…

…Pulmonary valve morphology normal normal/abnormal abnormal Density CW Doppler weak, slow deceleration variable dense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow Jet width colour…

…Physical examination may reveal a normal or low pulse pressure, an elevated jugular venous pressure with a paradoxical rise on inspiration (Kussmaul sign), and a…

…m² Abnormal urinalysis or renal imaging Risk of progression rises with proteinuria and depends on cause 2 60 mL/min/1.73 m² Abnormal urinalysis…

…coupled with clinical evidence of acute myocardial ischaemia. The Fourth Universal Definition classifies MI into five distinct subtypes based on pathophysiology and clinical context: Type…

…and optical coherence tomography (OCT) can reveal lesions that are not apparent on conventional angiography. Coronary vasomotor disorders may involve epicardial spasm or abnormalities of…

…or become abnormal, in the presence of symptoms suggestive of ischaemia and presumed new ischaemic ECG changes. The distinction between myocardial injury and type 2…

…Elsevier 2010 ). At the time of J 60 and J 80, there is minimal chance that there are any electrical potential differences in the myocardium…

…T waves are seen after periods of ischemia, after infarction and after successful reperfusion (PCI). Post ischemic T wave inversion is caused by abnormal repolarization…