…upturned leading edge, and lubricate the dorsal surface. 2. Position the head in the sniffing position if the neck may be moved. 3. Ensure that…

…L in 48 h, or 1.5–1.9 × the baseline < 0.5 mL/kg/h for 6–12 h 2 2.0–2…

… 2. Is the patient hypovolaemic, adequately filled or fluid overloaded? 3. Is there, or is there approaching, an indication for dialysis? AKI occurs in about…

…lumen Type 1 is reported in fewer than one third of cases in the pregnancy related source material. Types 2 and 3 are diagnostically more…

…dynamic, immune mediated fibroproliferative response to endothelial injury [2] . The process initiates with endothelial dysfunction, a state provoked by systemic risk factors such as hypertension…

…75 mL/min/1.73 m², the probability of coronary artery disease (CAD) increases in an approximately linear manner. At an eGFR of 15 mL…

…and infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Type 2 myocardial infarction (MI) is defined as an ischaemic myocardial injury occurring in the context of a mismatch between…

…produce the same sustained shift of water [3]. Severity of DKA The classification helps in choosing the level of care. The clinical state, the circulation…

…elevated risk of developing aortic stenosis. The prevalence of bicuspid aortic valves is 1% to 2% in most Western populations. Individuals with bicuspid aortic valves…

…sodium. Chronic or minimally symptomatic hyponatraemia must be corrected in a controlled fashion, since too rapid a rise can cause osmotic demyelination syndrome [1,2]…

…to apolipoprotein(a). The length of apolipoprotein(a) varies because of genetically determined differences in the number of kringle IV type 2 repeats. Lp(a)…

…body's capacity for heat elimination. Hyperthermia can induce an inflammatory state similar to the Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS). Body temperatures surpassing 40°C (104°F…

…Ca 2+ ) channels open so that calcium flows into the cell and causes depolarization. Subsequently, outward directed potassium (K + ) channels open which results in cell…

…systemic inflammation [7] . The dominant risk factors for HFpEF include hypertension (present in 80% of cases), obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease (CKD…

…haemorrhage , and state the patient's location and identity, the presumed cause of bleeding, and how the products are to be delivered. 2. Designate a…

…non variceal bleeding [1,2]. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding can present as haematemesis, coffee ground vomiting or melaena. Haematochezia can occur in massive upper bleeding with…

…VF). IV infusions can be safely continued for 2 to 3 weeks. IV amiodarone is generally well tolerated, even in patients with left ventricular dysfunction…

…vector typically shifts in the direction of the outer epicardial layers, producing ST elevations over the ischemic zone [15]. In the earliest stages of ischemia…

…of anticoagulation decisions [1] . In both paradigms, a score of ≥2 (excluding sex) is a Class I indication for OAC. Bleeding Risk Assessment: HAS BLED…

…a state of myocardial remission rather than true recovery. Data from the TRED HF trial demonstrated that withdrawal of guideline directed medical therapy (GDMT) in…

…fragmented QRS complexes ( Figure 2 ) are as follows: QRS complex with more than 1 R wave and/or notch in the descending limb of the…

…ablation and sophisticated device therapy [1] [2] . This exhaustive review provides a comprehensive synthesis of the current state of VT management for the practicing cardiologist…

…150) An acute phase protein — a normal ferritin does not exclude iron deficiency in the presence of inflammation Transferrin saturation 15–50 % < 15 % indicates…

…mental state, capillary refill, skin temperature, urine output, respiration, chest findings, MAP and the response to every intervention Within 60 min Contact intensive care in…

…mmHg ≤15 mmHg ≤2 Wood units The source material also presents a CpcPH threshold of PVR ≥3 Wood units in an overlapping clinical classification table…

ECG Exercise stress test Exercise stress testing in patients with previous acute coronary syndromes (myocardial infarction), women, elderly and revascularized individuals Clinicians should be familiar…

…octopus trap). Refer to Figure 1 and Figure 2. Figure 1. Echocardiogram showing takotsubo cardiomyopathy in acute phase (A) and resolution phase (B). Note the…

…be above the baseline. 2. Jp is ≥0.1 mV in 2 or more contiguous leads of the 12 lead ECG, excluding leads V1 to…

…adipokine signalling Endothelial dysfunction Dyslipidaemia A prothrombotic state Albuminuria and declining estimated glomerular filtration rate Development of type 2 diabetes mellitus Atherosclerotic cardiovascular events HF…

…with each dose adjustment, typically waiting 2 to 3 days to attain a steady state concentration before further adjusting the dose. Electrophysiology Sotalol prolongs the…

…similar state with downregulated metabolism, which is presumed to explain why neuronal cell death begins within 5–6 minutes (Lipton et al). Survival in cardiac…

…end stage of pericardial inflammation Constrictive pericarditis is the result of chronic inflammation of the pericardium. In principle, all causes of pericarditis can result in…

…hypertensive emergency, heart failure, and end stage renal disease, may produce elevated troponin concentrations. The probability of MI increases continuously as the absolute hs cTn…

…treatment. Reported risks of myocardial infarction, stroke, end stage renal disease, and death may be two to six fold higher in affected adults. True, apparent…

…while cardiomyocyte swelling, interstitial oedema and tissue inflammation produce extravascular compression. In the most severe form, termed no reflow, structural and functional microvascular impairment persists…

…intervention (PCI). Contraindications Prasugrel should not be used in the following situations: Hypersensitivity to the active substance or any of the excipients. Active pathological bleeding…

…follow up and appropriate therapy. In this setting, the risk of sudden death and end stage heart failure is high, and assessment for advanced therapies…

…weight gain, peripheral edema, early satiety, abdominal distension and, in some patients, bendopnea. Congestion may also aggravate functional mitral regurgitation, ventricular dilatation, myocardial wall stress…

…coexistence of defined clinical and laboratory components; the diagnostic criteria themselves are not reproduced in the available source material. Waist circumference is particularly important because…

Critical care Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Cardiogenic shock is a state of inadequate tissue and end organ perfusion caused by cardiac insufficiency…

…GFR in individuals with near normal or mildly reduced kidney function (eGFR 60 mL/min/1.73 m²), potentially leading to misclassification of CKD stages…

…may produce a transient mismatch between myocardial oxygen demand and coronary blood supply, resulting in myocardial hypoperfusion or ischaemia. Ischaemia is commonly precipitated by exertion…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology In acute coronary syndrome (ACS) with multivessel coronary artery disease (MVD), revascularization may be directed exclusively at the…

…encephalopathy, acute heart failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and abrupt deterioration in renal function. By contrast, hypertensive urgency describes severe hypertension without clinical evidence of acute…

…thrombus, and implanted stents. The principal modalities used in the catheterization laboratory are intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) and optical coherence tomography (OCT). Unlike coronary angiography, which…

…contrast, chronic hypoperfusion may result in hibernating myocardium: a persistently dysfunctional but potentially recoverable state. The chronically dysfunctional myocardium in ischemic cardiomyopathy is therefore heterogeneous…

…of the most comprehensive blogs in practical ECG interpretation. Taught by professor Smith, any reader is guaranteed to quickly acquire state of the art knowledge…

…these stages is supported by a wide range of experimental and clinical studies. The electrical phase and circulatory phase are explained by cellular changes in…

…ischemia at later stages, when functional or electrical alterations are evident. Subjective symptoms (i.e. chest pain) appear as the last event in the cascade…

…markers of myocardial wall stress. They are released principally by ventricular cardiomyocytes in response to increased transmural stress and ventricular stretch. Atrial natriuretic peptide is…

…of consciousness, a confusional state, profound weakness, the appearance of an arrhythmia, evidence of peripheral embolism, or an unexplained drop in arterial pressure. Silent or…

…useful tool for detecting hypertrophy/dilatation but echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging (cardiac MRI) are superior to the ECG in terms of sensitivity and specificity…

…vegetative state, or brain death. The cause of brain injuries is anoxic cell death, continued dysfunction in cerebral blood flow (autoregulation) after ROSC and cerebral…