…hypercalcaemia Primary hyperparathyroidism and malignancies cause 90% of all cases of hypercalcemia. Less common causes are immobilization, sarcoidosis, thyrotoxicosis, familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia, Addison's disease…

…not regarded as a discrete disease; rather, it is an indicator of increased cardiovascular risk and a setting in which secondary hypertension is relatively common…

…after ACS or STEMI. Aspirin 75–162 mg once daily is described as an acceptable secondary prevention range in chronic coronary disease. For prolonged treatment…

…Prophylaxis against recurrence of cerebrovascular disease: 75–80 mg tablet once daily. Warnings and precautions Use Aspirin with caution in the following cases: Concurrent anticoagulant…

…The modern concept of rehabilitation has evolved from early post infarction physical activity programmes into a structured centre of secondary cardiovascular prevention in which exercise…

…established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, or peripheral artery disease. Secondary prevention concerns patients with established vascular disease, in whom aspirin…

…recovery patterns within the left ventricle, resulting in a widened QRS complex and secondary ST T wave abnormalities [7]. Diagnostic Criteria The diagnostic requirements for…

…disease (PAD), and acute coronary syndromes (ACS). Its principal therapeutic objective is reduction of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C), the primary lipid target in…

…hyperplasia. A family history is therefore important, particularly in patients with early onset hypertension or premature cerebrovascular disease. PA is associated with cardiac hypertrophy, myocardial…

…likelihood of secondary hypertension and with substantially greater cardiovascular risk than hypertension controlled with treatment. Reported risks of myocardial infarction, stroke, end stage renal disease…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and Scope Primary prevention aims to prevent the clinical manifestation of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in individuals without established clinical CVD. It…

…factors serve as useful predictors in prediction models. Targeting risk factors has been very successful in the primary and secondary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease…

…Stress dosing in known adrenal insufficiency A patient with primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease), secondary adrenal insufficiency or long term corticosteroid treatment cannot increase…

…treatment. Indications Suspected primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease): fatigue, weight loss, hyperpigmentation, hyponatraemia, hyperkalaemia, postural symptoms. Suspected secondary adrenal insufficiency in pituitary disease, after…

…4. prevent recurrence and secondary brain injury. The doses in the treatment ladder below follow the Swedish local sequence given in the original article. International…

…consideration for patients with low blood pressure secondary to a low cardiac output. Its primary clinical utility in contemporary practice is late line therapy for…

…for secondary contributors is an essential first step. Recognised causes include: Diabetes and insulin resistance Thyroid disease Kidney disease Excessive alcohol consumption Diets high in…

…failure, particularly when left ventricular function is impaired Haemodynamic or electrical instability in advanced or acute presentations Left main disease may be clinically silent, and…

…heart failure or cardiogenic shock. In chronic coronary disease, the principal symptomatic indication for revascularization is angina that remains refractory despite medical therapy when significant…

…arrhythmias and therefore QT duration must always be assessed. QT prolongation may be congenital (due to genetic mutations) or acquired (secondary to medications, electrolyte disorders)…

…and potential drug interactions. Cannabis should also be addressed, particularly in patients with established atherosclerotic disease. Readiness and behavioural context A brief, structured intervention should…

…syndrome (DI LQTS) [1]. The condition arises in the setting of both modifiable and nonmodifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors include electrolyte abnormalities such as…

…are benign. Primary and secondary cardiac tumors • Primary cardiac tumors , which constitute a minority of cardiac tumors, occur in the heart tissue. Approximately 80% of…

…compaction cardiomyopathy Peripartum cardiomyopathy Cardiomyopathy secondary to valvular heart disease Long term prognosis varies markedly across these conditions. The prognosis in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy may…

…structural heart disease, fibrosis of the conduction system and acute myocardial infarction (particularly anterior STEMI). Hence, an acute myocardial infarction may actually result in LBBB…

…tone in the autonomic nervous system, with increased sympathetic input (leading to stimulation of beta adrenergic receptors) and parasympathetic withdrawal. Sinus tachycardia secondary to disease…

…depressions. In STE ACS, on the other hand, the ST segment depressions are secondary findings and the primary findings are the ST segment elevations. As…

…20 % Also unfavourable, particularly in the elderly An abnormal 24 hour rhythm should prompt investigation for sleep apnoea, renal disease and secondary hypertension, and lead…

…persists: exercise ABI 0.91–0.99 Borderline Exercise ABI or follow up 0.41–0.90 Peripheral arterial disease, mild to moderate Secondary prevention…

…Do not routinely stop aspirin given as secondary prevention 8 Contact the endoscopist and the consultant on call early. In cirrhosis or suspected variceal bleeding…

…Definition and Pathophysiology Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are foundational therapies in cardiovascular medicine, widely utilized for the management of hypertension, chronic ischemic heart disease…

…based approach because cardiovascular benefit from blood pressure reduction may also occur in selected people whose pressure is elevated but below the conventional hypertension threshold…

…hypotension is present, or secondary arrhythmias result from the slow rate. In the setting of bradyarrhythmic or asystolic arrest, management priorities shift to establishing control…

…therapy 18% Fixed dose combination with ezetimibe 38% Pooled analyses across different background therapies 17%–25% In patients with atherosclerotic vascular disease or familial hypercholesterolaemia…

…to demonstrate clinical benefit in the settings studied. Clinical application and patient populations The evidence for anti inflammatory treatment in coronary disease has principally involved…

…In secondary prevention, randomized trials in people with established coronary disease found fewer cardiovascular events with Mediterranean dietary interventions than with low fat control diets…

…may include manifestations of coronary, cerebral or peripheral arterial disease, although the source material does not specify symptom patterns in detail. Physical manifestations Tendinous xanthomas…

…also occur in primary valvular disease. Increasing severity of mitral regurgitation is associated with worse outcomes. Pulmonary hypertension secondary to left heart disease may occur…

…Non HDL C and apoB are secondary targets or risk refining measures, particularly in patients with: Diabetes or other cardiometabolic risk factors Obesity Insulin resistance…

…present de novo in pregnant women without pre existing heart disease, such as in peripartum cardiomyopathy, or secondary to known cardiac conditions; in these patients…

…In adults over 40 years of age, atherosclerosis is the predominant cause. Other mechanisms include thrombosis, embolism, vasculitis, fibromuscular dysplasia, arterial entrapment, cystic adventitial disease…

…Additionally, LAD may suggest underlying left heart disease in patients being evaluated for pulmonary hypertension [16]. Causes of Left and Right Axis Deviation Based on…

…This is seen in ischemia, electrolyte disorders (calcium, potassium), tachycardia, increased sympathetic tone, drug side effects etc. Secondary ST T changes occur when abnormal depolarization…

…useful tool for detecting hypertrophy/dilatation but echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging (cardiac MRI) are superior to the ECG in terms of sensitivity and specificity…

…changes also occur in conditions where the left ventricle is not overloaded (e.g. dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy). Therefore, the term secondary ST T changes…

…7] . The dominant risk factors for HFpEF include hypertension (present in 80% of cases), obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease (CKD), sedentary lifestyle…

…S waves in leads V1 and V2 and broad, frequently nothed, R wave in V5 and V6. Secondary ST T changes occur invariably in the…

…to either the primary or secondary outcomes. Primary outcome events occurred in 49% of patients in the milrinone group and 54% in the dobutamine group…

…on the ECG. Secondary ST T changes during pre excitation As mentioned in Chapter 1, pre excitation causes secondary ST T changes. This is due…

…the secondary ST T changes seen on premature ventricular complexes; the ST T vector will be directed oppositely to the QRS vector. As seen in…

…and rightward. Due to the abnormal depolarization sequence of the right ventricle in RBBB, repolarization is also abnormal, leading to secondary ST T changes, which…

…is occasionally seen in V1–V2. This resembles, but is not, right bundle branch block (RBBB). Secondary ST T changes are common in V1–V3…

…Hence, all beats and rhythms arising in the ventricles will display discordant ST T segments, meaning that the QRS complex and the ST T segment…

…a critical marker of arrhythmogenic risk, particularly in the setting of ischemic heart disease or reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Sustained VT: Defined as…

…causes right atrial dilation. Vena cava inferior may also dilate secondarily. Principles of management Medical therapies do not alter disease progression. Diuretics may be used…