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Reduction of dislocations

…dislocation The commonest of all dislocations. There is a hollow beneath the acromion, the arm is held in slight abduction and external rotation, and the…

Basic cardiac pacing, pacemaker functions and settings

…myocardium may be excited by external electrical stimuli that drive the cells to threshold. Stimulation threshold is the minimum amount of energy required to reach…

Exercise Electrocardiographic Testing: Indications, Limitations and Interpretation

…coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) and functional imaging have higher diagnostic performance. Its most consistent contemporary role is therefore the assessment of functional capacity, symptoms…

Components and construction of a pacemaker

…of myocardial excitability Myocardium is excitable not only by action potentials originating in the sinus node, but also by external electrical stimuli that drive the…

Casting and immobilisation

…about the symptoms that should make them seek help immediately. Indications An undisplaced or reduced fracture to be treated conservatively. Immobilisation after reduction of a…

In-Stent Restenosis: Mechanisms and Treatment

…accumulation of tissue within the stent progressively reduce the lumen. The stent scaffold prevents the external constriction that characterizes restenosis after balloon angioplasty. The biological…

Intravascular Imaging: IVUS and OCT for PCI Optimisation

…beyond the lumen and visualization of the external elastic membrane (EEM). IVUS is consequently useful for determining vessel size, plaque burden, and the dimensions of…

Vasovagal Syncope: Diagnosis, Tilt Testing and Treatment

…40% of females and 30% of males due to a lack of effective reflex response to posture, venous pooling, or external stimuli. The underlying pathophysiology…

Arrhythmias before and during cardiac arrest

…occur in one patient. The typical depiction of sudden cardiac death as a gradual transition from sinus rhythm to ventricular tachycardia (VT), to ventricular fibrillation…

Assessment of Pacemaker Malfunction

…Most cases of malfunction are associated with the electronics in the pulse generator or dislodgement or fracture of the leads. External causes are less common…

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