…asymmetric dimethylarginine, homocysteine, white blood cell count, proinflammatory cytokines and C reactive protein. Increased urinary albumin/creatinine ratio reflects altered endothelial and renal pathophysiology in…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Secondary hypertension is elevated blood pressure attributable to a specific, identifiable underlying cause. It should be considered in every…

…based approach because cardiovascular benefit from blood pressure reduction may also occur in selected people whose pressure is elevated but below the conventional hypertension threshold…

…In clinical practice, the condition is identified primarily through persistently elevated blood pressure despite multidrug treatment rather than through specific symptoms. The clinical importance lies…

…Ageing is associated with progressive increases in systolic blood pressure (SBP), while diastolic blood pressure (DBP) rises less steeply and may remain stable or decline…

…failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome in which the heart cannot deliver blood at a rate appropriate to tissue requirements unless filling pressures are elevated…

…In adults with elevated blood pressure, nonpharmacological management should be actively implemented. Adults with blood pressure ≥140/90 mmHg should receive both lifestyle and antihypertensive…

…and vascular resistance. Advantages of measuring MAP over systolic blood pressure While systolic blood pressure (SBP) indicates the maximum pressure during heart contraction, it does…

…in up to 70% of patients undergoing invasive coronary angiography, while approximately 25% of these patients have documented ischaemia. Among patients referred for invasive angiography…

…common in patients with inferoposterior left ventricular infarction, while infarction confined predominantly to the right ventricle is rare. The clinical spectrum extends from limited right…

…at increased risk and reducing exposure to established, modifiable determinants of cardiovascular disease. The principal targets include blood pressure, lipid abnormalities, diabetes and glycaemic status…

…increases. This results in increased left ventricular load, while simultaneously affecting systemic perfusion. Aortic stenosis is a serious condition with poor long term outcomes. Patients…

…renal disease are bidirectionally related: hypertension accelerates CKD progression, while impaired renal function further increases blood pressure. Non traditional cardiovascular mechanisms include: Uraemia associated inflammation…

…failure, and end stage renal disease, may produce elevated troponin concentrations. The probability of MI increases continuously as the absolute hs cTn concentration rises. Early…

…shock is common in both penetrating and blunt force trauma. Loss of blood volume renders chest compressions futile. Hypoxia : Hypoxia is common in traumatic cardiac…

…further classified based on the intensity of tracer uptake and associated myocardial changes: Mild defects : Characterized by decreased tracer counts while preserving normal wall thickness…

…of ≥50%, accompanied by objective evidence of structural and/or functional cardiac abnormalities and/or elevated natriuretic peptides (NPs) [1] [2] . The evolution of HF…

…myocardial injury, defined by an elevated cardiac troponin (cTn) value with at least one value above the 99th percentile upper reference limit (URL). The injury…

…an elevated cardiac troponin concentration and new ST segment depression in new onset AF should not automatically be labelled type 2 myocardial infarction without further…

…V6), while ST segments are elevated and T waves are typically upright in leads with predominantly negative QRS complexes (such as V1 and V2) [7]…

…A circumferential cast in a fresh injury, before surgery, or while swelling is progressing. Take care in impaired sensation (neuropathy, spinal cord injury) — the patient…

…and pathophysiology Familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) is an inherited disorder characterized by persistently elevated plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) from early life and a…

…Hypertensive emergency is defined as significantly elevated blood pressure (systolic pressure ≥180 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure ≥120 mmHg) with concurrent signs of acute organ…

…compartments. Heart failure is defined physiologically by the inability of the heart to provide blood flow appropriate to tissue requirements unless filling pressures are elevated…

…of blood. The 2021 Universal Definition of Heart Failure, endorsed by major global cardiovascular societies, defines HF as a clinical syndrome corroborated by elevated natriuretic…

…Hypertensive emergency is defined as significantly elevated blood pressure (systolic pressure ≥180 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure ≥120 mmHg) with concurrent signs of acute organ…

…contingent upon the specific mutation present. For patients at elevated risk—such as those with a history of cardiac arrest, recurrent syncope despite beta blocker…

…contingent upon the specific mutation present. For patients at elevated risk—such as those with a history of cardiac arrest, recurrent syncope despite beta blocker…

…in South Asians, who have substantially elevated risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes at BMI levels of 23 kg/m 2 or higher. Body surface…

…risk. Left Atrial Diameter (LA) : Enlargement of the left atrium is a marker of elevated left ventricular filling pressures and is linked to adverse outcomes…

…In acute PE, obstruction of pulmonary blood flow increases RV pressure load and may impair RV filling and forward output. The resulting syndrome may progress…

…a normal or low pulse pressure, an elevated jugular venous pressure with a paradoxical rise on inspiration (Kussmaul sign), and a difficult to palpate apex…

…an important consideration in older populations. Risk prediction is particularly relevant in adults with elevated blood pressure (BP), in whom absolute cardiovascular risk varies considerably…

…hyperdynamic states In cardiac amyloidosis, BNP or NT proBNP may be markedly elevated even when overt congestion is not apparent. Such a discrepancy should prompt…

…groups and generally remain relatively stable throughout life. Lp(a) is elevated in approximately one in five individuals. Pathophysiology Lp(a) is associated with several…

…helps explain the neurological manifestations of preeclampsia and the potential for stroke even at blood pressure levels that might otherwise be considered only moderately elevated…

…In heavy smokers, cardiovascular risk falls within five years of stopping but may remain elevated thereafter. The overall health benefit is greater still when reductions…

…symptoms (SAMS). These range from diffuse myalgia with a normal CK and no functional impairment to myositis with muscle inflammation and elevated CK. Rhabdomyolysis is…

…pathological examination. Pathologically, infarction represents myocardial cell death caused by prolonged ischaemia. The first cellular abnormalities of ischaemia include depletion of glycogen, relaxation of myofibrils…

…mastering the nuances of anticoagulation requires an intimate understanding of the underlying pathophysiology, which is classically framed by Virchow’s triad: blood stasis, endothelial dysfunction…

…Measure serum lactate levels . Elevated lactate is an indicator of tissue hypoperfusion and can guide resuscitative efforts. If the patient presents with hypotension or has…

…hemorrhage in the context of cardiac arrest cases. Highly echogenic fluid indicates that the blood has coagulated, making it very challenging to drain using pericardiocentesis…

…a few nanograms per liter of blood (typically <5 ng/L). This is explained by the low turnover of cardiac muscle cells ( Parmacek et al…

…the cell membranes collapse whereby cellular proteins are released into the circulation. It is possible to detect elevated levels of myocardial proteins in blood within…

…particularly obstructive pulmonary disease, the use of theophylline, and elevated catecholamine states. EAT typically has an abrupt onset, although a brief warm up phase lasting…

…shows localized ST segment elevations, T wave inversions and occasionally pathological Q waves. Troponin levels are often mildly elevated. Hence, takotsubo cardiomyopathy cannot be differentiated…

…nasogastric tube. Warnings and Precautions Increased risk of bleeding, especially in patients with known elevated bleeding risk. Discontinuation of Ticagrelor should be avoided. If a…

…to track more closely with apoB. Discordantly high apoB is especially associated with metabolic syndrome and mildly elevated triglycerides, even when LDL C is normal…

…total, 82 patients (19.7%) had elevated high sensitivity troponin I (TnI) levels. The mortality rate among patients with elevated troponin I was 51.2%…

…troponin elevation is not specific for myocardial infarction. Other conditions may produce cardiomyocyte injury and elevated troponin, so biomarker interpretation must be integrated with the…

…improve cardiovascular outcomes, although opportunistic assessment during clinical encounters improves detection of risk factors such as elevated blood pressure and lipid abnormalities. CAC should therefore…

…provide blood flow commensurate with the body’s requirements or can do so only at the cost of elevated filling pressures. Congestion and elevated filling…

…LDL C or non HDL C, particularly in patients with metabolic syndrome or elevated triglycerides despite normal or low LDL C. HDL cholesterol (HDL C…

…Myocardial injury is not synonymous with myocardial infarction. Cardiac troponin identifies injury to myocardial cells, but infarction requires additional clinical evidence that the injury resulted…

…of the PR segment. ST segment elevation implies that the ST segment is elevated above the level of the PR segment. The magnitude of any…

…correlates with evidence of injury on cardiac magnetic resonance. Interpretation is more difficult when the baseline troponin is already elevated, as occurs during acute MI…

…characteristic clinical syndrome consists of: Malaise Fever Pericardial or chest discomfort Leukocytosis Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate Pericardial effusion Pericardial pain is often sharp and pleuritic…

…is loss of contractile myocardium, with reduced cardiac output and systemic hypoperfusion. LV failure may produce elevated filling pressures, pulmonary venous hypertension, and pulmonary congestion…

…a total occlusion in a coronary artery occurs (then of course, the ST segment will be elevated). T wave inversion (inverted / negative T waves) T…

…only after blood analyses confirm elevated levels of myocardial proteins. These proteins are cardiac troponins (henceforth referred to only as troponins). When elevated troponin levels…