…inflammatory process. A broad spectrum of pharmacologic agents can induce bradycardia or conduction disorders. These include beta blockers, non dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers, antiarrhythmic drugs…

…of hypercalcemia. Less common causes are immobilization, sarcoidosis, thyrotoxicosis, familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia, Addison's disease, renal failure, tamoxifen, lithium, thiazide diuretics, D vitamin and calcium…

…Primary and secondary ST T changes Primary ST T changes are caused by abnormal repolarization . This is seen in ischemia, electrolyte disorders (calcium, potassium), tachycardia…

…also present in individuals without identifiable cardiac disease. Contributing factors include pulmonary disorders, particularly obstructive pulmonary disease, the use of theophylline, and elevated catecholamine states…

…tamoxifen or lithium, thiazide administration, and over supplementation of calcium and vitamin D. ECG in hypercalcemia Typical ECG changes: Shortened QT interval. Attenuated T wave…

…Asian ancestry Previous muscle disease or a personal or family history of muscle disorders Acute infection Renal or hepatic impairment Hypothyroidism Vitamin D deficiency Concomitant…

…Brugada syndrome. This disorder is easy to diagnose with a simple blood test and the ST segment elevations resolve after normalization of potassium levels. Brugada…

…adventitial disease and trauma. Atherosclerotic PAD is a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather than an isolated disorder of the lower limbs. Patients frequently have…

…antenatal hypertensive disorders, but it may also arise de novo after delivery. New onset postpartum preeclampsia is increasingly recognized as a significant cause of maternal…

…include electrolyte disorders, metabolic disorders, hypoxemia, antiarrhythmic drugs, or electromagnetic disturbance caused by other machines/devices. Below follows ECG tracings demonstrating each type of failure…

…Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Myocardial infarction (MI) is a clinical diagnosis that integrates myocardial injury, evidence of acute myocardial ischaemia, electrocardiographic findings…

…failure. A peripheral venous blood gas is easier to obtain and can often be used for an initial assessment of pH and the metabolic component…

…during the examination. Work related musculoskeletal disorders are a common cause of pain and sickness absence for ultrasound practitioners (Harrison et al). When performing emergency…

…Nielsen syndrome Romano Ward syndrome Idiopathic congenital long QT syndrome (LQTS) Metabolic disorders Hypokalemia Hypomagnesemia Hypocalcemia Starvation Anorexia nervosa Liquid protein diets Hypothyroidism Bradyarrhythmia Sinus…

…s disease), degeneration associated with connective tissue disorders (Marfan syndrome, Ehlers Danlos syndrome), osteogenesis imperfecta typically causes prolapse of P2 (Figure 1). Myocardial ischemia affecting…

…the presence of an abnormal amount of fluid in the pericardial space. It can be caused by numerous local and systemic disorders. Accumulation of fluid…

Cardiology Definition and purpose Cardiovascular risk assessment estimates an individual’s probability of experiencing cardiovascular disease (CVD) over a defined period. SCORE2 and SCORE2 Older…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Primary aldosteronism (PA), also termed primary hyperaldosteronism or Conn syndrome, comprises disorders in which aldosterone secretion is inappropriately increased…

…with later cardiovascular risk include: Premature menopause Premature ovarian insufficiency Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy Preeclampsia Preterm delivery Gestational diabetes Small for gestational age delivery Placental…

…mistaken impression of indigestion. STEMI pain can simulate pain from acute pericarditis, pulmonary embolism, acute aortic dissection, costochondritis, and gastrointestinal disorders. Radiation of discomfort to…

…Severe heart failure. Doses 100 mg/day during the third trimester of pregnancy. Dosage Acute myocardial infarction: Initial loading dose: 300–500 mg as soon…

…and thromboembolic disorders. Most recognised heritable cardiovascular conditions demonstrate autosomal dominant transmission, in which an affected heterozygous individual has a 50% risk of transmitting the…

…assessed. QT prolongation may be congenital (due to genetic mutations) or acquired (secondary to medications, electrolyte disorders). QT duration is inversely related to heart rate…

…impairment to develop, leaving persistent hypertension despite correction of the initiating disorder. Earlier diagnosis is associated with a greater likelihood of cure. When to investigate…

…MI) survivors, the contemporary risk factor profile is increasingly driven by the global epidemics of obesity, diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome [58] . Hypertension and coronary…

…and miscellaneous conditions A novel potentially life threatening cardiac arrhythmia syndrome identified with ECG The ECG may be used to diagnose several cardiac genetic disorders…

…antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). Collectively, these disorders are associated with excess cardiovascular disease (CVD), although the cardiovascular phenotype varies substantially between diseases. Cardiovascular involvement extends beyond…

…suggestive of sleep disordered breathing Hypoventilation Peripheral oedema or venous disease Reduced mobility Osteoarthritis and low back pain Symptoms of type 2 diabetes or metabolic…

…dissection (SCAD) is an acute coronary disorder caused by separation within the coronary arterial wall, usually through formation of an intramural haematoma that compresses the…

…Electrolyte disorders, acidosis, hypoxemia and ischemia all aggravate the risk of developing ventricular fibrillation, in any situation. ECG features of ventricular fibrillation The ECG shows…

…after reperfusion in an occluded coronary artery. It also occurs as side effect of drugs, hypoxia, myocarditis and electrolyte disorders. Because the rate (60–100…

…electrolyte disorders , congenital heart disease and catecholamine induced ventricular tachycardia . The vast majority of patients with ventricular tachycardia either have coronary artery disease (ischemic heart…

…be considered anginal equivalents. The emergency evaluation of non traumatic chest discomfort is structured around three principal diagnostic categories: Myocardial ischaemia , particularly acute coronary syndrome…

…coronary disorders. The investigation should be undertaken when its diagnostic or therapeutic consequences are likely to outweigh procedural risks. This balance forms part of shared…

…in this pattern. Endothelial dysfunction may contribute to both microvascular and epicardial vasomotor disorders. Endothelial activation can promote the release of adhesion molecules, inflammatory cytokines…

…are not apparent on conventional angiography. Coronary vasomotor disorders may involve epicardial spasm or abnormalities of the coronary microcirculation. Microvascular angina reflects myocardial ischaemia caused…

…Malignancy: A history suggesting an autoimmune disorder or known malignancy may suggest specific, nonidiopathic etiologies [2]. Summary of Pain Characteristics The following table synthesizes the…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology Cardiology Definition and Pathophysiology Vasovagal syncope represents the most common form of neurally mediated syncope (NMS), a disorder of autonomic reflexes. It…

Cardiology Respiratory medicine Definition and Pathophysiology Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a heterogeneous pathophysiological disorder characterized primarily by elevation of pulmonary arterial pressure. It may arise…

…clinical disease. HeFH affects approximately 1 in 250–300 people and is the most common inherited metabolic disorder associated with premature cardiovascular disease. Prevalence is…

…vasoconstriction, adhesion of circulating cells, inflammatory cell entry into the intima, and thrombus formation. Atherosclerosis is therefore not simply a disorder of lipid storage. Its…

…the absence of a flow limiting epicardial coronary stenosis. It is therefore a disorder of coronary microvascular perfusion rather than persistent obstruction of the treated…

…trauma and metabolic disturbance. 4. Monitoring at the appropriate level of care , with readiness for respiratory support. 5. Treatment of the alcohol use disorder and…

…Cardiac Amyloidosis Definition and Pathophysiology Cardiac amyloidosis (CA) is a protein misfolding disorder characterized by the extracellular deposition of misfolded fibrillar proteins in the myocardium…

Echocardiography Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM): from pathophysiology to echocardiography Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a genetic disorder that causes left ventricular hypertrophy under normal loading conditions. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy…

…to second hand smoke. Use of cannabis, electronic cigarettes or other inhaled products. Readiness to attempt cessation. Depression, schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, HIV infection or other…

Endokrinologi & metabolism Akutsjukvård Lathundar Emergency overview Measure the plasma glucose immediately in everyone with a reduced level of consciousness, seizures, confusion, a change in behaviour…

…rise can cause osmotic demyelination syndrome [1,2]. Hyponatraemia is primarily a disorder of water balance. The plasma sodium reflects the ratio between the body…

…ECG examples of each condition are presented below. The ECG in Brugada syndrome Brugada syndrome is a rare channelopathy (an electrical disorder caused by mutations…

…follow. Consider people with the genetic disorder familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), which is caused by genetic mutations affecting the elimination of LDL cholesterol from the blood…

…on left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) is defined by the combination of symptoms, with or without physical signs…