…in the same order every time. Skipping a step is a common reason why mixed acid base disorders are missed. The blood gas describes the…

…cells mechanically and electrically. Most mutations are inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, with variable penetrance and expressivity. Recessive forms exist, although they are rare…

…4], [6]. Presentation Nuances: While typical angina is defined by these characteristics, the presentation can be highly variable, particularly in females, the elderly, or patients…

…distinction is clinically useful but not absolute. Ejection fraction is a continuous variable and echocardiographic measurement has meaningful variability. Patients with LVEF 40% have substantial…

…of heart failure is common among these individuals. The majority of the mutations are inherited in an autosomal dominant manner with variable penetrance and expressivity…

…Brugada syndrome was classically defined as a monogenic, autosomal dominant channelopathy with incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity. The first and most critical genetic locus identified…

…individuals in most societies. HCM is also the most common cause of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in young individuals and during exercise. The risk of…

…increase heart rate Chronotropic incompetence is an independent predictor of overall and cardiovascular mortality. The condition is very common among individuals with heart failure. Notably…

…creatinine using the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD EPI) equation, incorporating relevant demographic variables; cystatin C may also be used as a filtration marker…

…obstruction that has persisted for at least 30 days. CTOs are common among patients undergoing coronary angiography, with reported prevalence ranging from 18% to 52…

…This distinction is clinically important because cardiac troponin elevation after revascularization is common and may reflect procedural myocardial injury rather than a clinically significant infarction…

…the analysis of electrolyte levels. Electrocardiography (ECG) serves as a valuable tool for detecting and assessing the severity of electrolyte disturbances, particularly before laboratory results…

…a dissecting haematoma may precede rupture. The tear commonly develops at the interface between infarcted and viable myocardium. The incidence has fallen substantially with contemporary…

…important. Such knowledge is valuable for most clinicians. For cardiologists – particularly interventional cardiologists – this knowledge is of critical importance as they must be able to…

…Previously, alpha streptococcus was the most common agent. These streptococci most often originate from the oral cavity and affect heart valves that have some kind…

…with signal intensity comparable to background activity, typically representing infarcted tissue or non viable myocardium. Perfusion patterns and reversibility Perfusion patterns are systematically analyzed by…

Echocardiography Ultrasound artifacts The following artifacts are common in ultrasound imaging: The ultrasound image displays non existing structures. The ultrasound image does not display existing…

CPR This chapter will introduce the most common and essential terms used in resuscitation science, providing a foundation for understanding subsequent chapters. SCA (Sudden Cardiac…

Echocardiography Mitral regurgitation Causes of mitral regurgitation The most common cause of mitral regurgitation in high income countries is age related degeneration of the valvular…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology Cardiology Definition and Pathophysiology Vasovagal syncope represents the most common form of neurally mediated syncope (NMS), a disorder of autonomic reflexes. It…

…Atrial Fibrillation and Atrial Thromboembolism Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common sustained cardiac arrhythmia and a profound driver of global cardiovascular morbidity and mortality…

…observant will notice that the classification differs slightly from that of atrial fibrillation. Acute and paroxysmal cases are common in clinical practice. Chronic flutter is…

…chest pain: differential diagnoses, evaluation and management Chest pain is one of the most common symptoms in the emergency department, as well as in primary…

…developing atrial fibrillation: atrial flutter, AVNRT and AVRT (pre excitation, WPW syndrome) being the most common. Atrial fibrillation with onset during hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis), alcohol overdose…

…clinical features, mechanisms, ECG & management Atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is a common tachyarrhythmia observed across all age groups, from children to the elderly, and…

ECG Hypertrophy and dilatation Biventricular hypertrophy Simultaneous hypertrophy of the left and right ventricle is rather common. The ECG has low sensitivity with respect to…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology ECG Mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias: from automaticity to re entry This section introduces the most common arrhythmias encountered in clinical practice, beginning…

…pericardium). The most common of these are acute pericarditis (perimyocarditis), constrictive pericarditis, pericardial effusion and tamponade. Less common are cysts and tumors of the pericardium…

…ECG, normal variants & pathological variants Sinus tachycardia is the most common tachyarrhythmia (tachycardia). Sinus tachycardia is the result of an increased rate of depolarization (i…

…The most common serious error is dilating a vessel that turns out to be an artery — everything in the technique is designed to make sure…

…quick reference is intended primarily for adults and summarises the order in which measures are taken and the principles that are common to all protocols…

…is defined by a markedly raised blood pressure in combination with new or progressive acute target organ damage. Common manifestations are hypertensive encephalopathy, intracerebral haemorrhage…

…in lead II. Common findings Sinus rhythm (which is the normal rhythm) has the following characteristics: (1) heart rate 50–100 beats per minute; (2…

…the most frequent supraventricular arrhythmia in patients with acute coronary syndromes (ACS) and is also a common tachyarrhythmia requiring treatment in decompensated heart failure (DHF)…

…potassium, and resistant to suppression by sodium loading. It is the most common form of secondary hypertension. Aldosterone acts principally through the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR)…

…one third of patients with inferior infarction. Extensive involvement is less common in patients with inferoposterior left ventricular infarction, while infarction confined predominantly to the…

…arrests are caused by acute or chronic coronary artery disease, with the latter being the most common. The figure 80% occurs in most textbooks in…

…pericardium and surgical interventions are the most common causes of constrictive pericarditis. Of these three, idiopathic pericarditis is the most common cause of constrictive pericarditis…

…severe complication of coronary artery disease. The most common initiating mechanism is rupture or erosion of a vulnerable (unstable) atherosclerotic coronary plaque. Upon such damage…

…electrophysiological standpoint), whereas others may be life threatening. The most common and clinically most relevant electrolyte imbalances concern potassium, calcium and magnesium. Note that some…

…been discussed in Introduction to Exercise ECG. The most common indications are as follows: Assessment of cardiovascular risk in screening. Detection of coronary artery disease …

…which is synonymous with ischemic heart disease, is the most common form of cardiovascular disease. It has been the number one killer in Western and…

…common rhythm arising in the AV node is junctional rhythm , which may also be referred to as junctional escape rhythm . Junctional tachycardia is less common…

…affects cardiovascular and total mortality. Left bundle branch block is more common in individuals with structural and ischemic heart disease. Assessment of ischemia on ECG…

…artery into the right ventricle during diastole. The most common cause of abnormal pulmonary regurgitation is pulmonary hypertension. Table 1 presents the causes of pulmonary…

…branch block, fascicular block and AV block, are common in myocardial ischemia and infarction. These conditions may be seen as signs of ischemia, which is…

…or tumors. Rheumatic disease is the most common cause, in which scenario tricuspid stenosis is virtually always accompanied by aortic or mitral disease (most commonly…

…in particular that exceeds the patient's normal variation and requires a change of treatment. Common precipitants are viral infection, bacterial infection and air pollution…

…3]. Step 1: classify by time course and triggers Syndrome Typical course Common or important causes Targeted examination : : : : Acute vestibular syndrome Acute or subacute onset…

…and several syndromes can overlap [1,4]. Time after a clear reduction or the last intake Common clinical picture : : 4 to 12 hours Tremor, sweating…

…110 Isolated systolic hypertension ≥ 140 and < 90 Thresholds for different measurement methods Measurement technique Faulty measurement technique is the most common cause of misclassification…

…may be enough to precipitate the condition [1,2]. Delirium is common but often missed. On medical and geriatric wards a substantial proportion of older…

…scale), gives poorer control and is not recommended as the sole regimen. Common situations Situation Management : : Fasting before an investigation, type 1 Continue basal insulin…

…Oxycodone PO 5–10 mg as needed The first choice among the common opioids in renal failure Ketobemidone IV 2.5–5 mg Oral bioavailability…

…titration is possible. Maximum dose: 21 mg/h iv. Common therapeutic dose: 4 6 mg/h. Clevidipine is administered in lipid emulsion (containing soy, egg)…

…titration is possible. Maximum dose: 21 mg/h iv. Common therapeutic dose: 4 6 mg/h. Clevidipine is administered in lipid emulsion (containing soy, egg)…

…Maximum dose: 8 10 μg/kg/minute. Common maximum dose: 3 μg/kg/minute. Maximum dose (10 μg/kg/minute) should never…

…most likely mechanism underlying typical atrial flutter is reentry. In the common form of typical atrial flutter, the reentrant circuit is confined to the right…