…mm/s (Figure 1). Gain and filter should be minimized in order to obtain optimal images. The pulsed Doppler beam can be positioned using color…

…can further increase the amount of gain applied to incoming sound waves. This is done using gain control or time gain compensation (TGC) . Figure 1…

…such that the distances between the ribs increase, providing larger windows for the ultrasound beam. The operator can sit on either side of the patient…

…Measuring the radius of PISA. Color Doppler is used to revealing PISA. As discussed earlier, aliasing occurs when using color Doppler to analyze velocities greater…

…similar to that of reverberations. Figure 4. Mirror image artifact. Side lobe artifact A 2D image is formed by allowing the ultrasound beam to sweep…

…Figure 1. The Doppler effect. When the sound source moves towards the observer, the sound waves are compressed, which leads to a shortening of the…

…muscles are considered part of the left ventricular cavity. Other dimensions– including atrial dimensions, mitral annulus, aortic annulus, etc –are measured using the blood tissue…

…gradient (mmHg) across a valve. Example 1 : A maximum velocity of 4 m/s is measured across the aortic valve. The pressure gradient equals: 4…

…next sinus beat will be longer than one normal sinus interval. The P wave of a premature atrial contraction has the following characteristics ( Figure 1 …

CPR ECG 1 . The initial rhythm is atrial fibrillation. The fifth beat is a ventricular premature beat. A ventricular tachycardia (VT) emerges. As evident, ventricular…

CPR ECG 1 . Sinus rhythm interrupted by ventricular tachycardia (VT). ECG 2 . Spontaneous termination of ventricular tachycardia (VT). ECG 3 . A single ventricular beat, followed…

…slurred terminal portion of the R wave in the high risk morphology, which replaces the sharp negative S wave seen in the low risk beat —…

…quinidine ECG 1 . The initial beats are supraventricular beats during sinus rhythm. A brief run of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (VT) occurs after the 4th beat…

…The urgency varies: Object Urgency : : Button battery Immediately — leakage of fluid causes a chemical burn Two or more magnets (including in different nostrils) Immediately — pressure…

…40% of atrial size 10 cm² or 40% of atrial size Jet orientation central variable excentric Pulmonary vein flow S dominant reduced S wave systolic…

…sinus beat typically exhibits a longer QT interval, and the T wave is interrupted by a PVC, which serves as the first beat of the…

…or those undergoing aortic valve replacement [1, 5, 10]. A history of increasing frequency of hospitalizations and visits for heart failure without disease recognition in…

…left bundle branch block alternating from one beat to another) is uncommon. Ashman's phenomenon : This type of aberration occurs when the RR interval is…

…compression of the ventricles during diastole; cardiac tamponade occurs if excess pericardial fluid causes hemodynamic effects. Electrical alternans – i.e the beat to beat variation…

…or entirely outside of the conduction system and thus produce a wide QRS complex (QRS duration ≥0.12 s). Refer to Figure 1 for an…

…degree of block, the more difficult it may be to verify that the PR interval is being gradually prolonged. Indeed, in 2 to 1 block…

…s: pre excitation (WPW syndrome). Second degree AV block, Mobitz I (Wenckebach): repeated episodes with progressive lengthening of the PR interval until an atrial beat…

…regurgitation Severe regurgitation EROA (cm²) < 0.10 0.10 0.29 0.29 Regurgitation volume (ml/beat) < 30 30 59 59 Regurgitation fraction…

…of hypoglycaemia in a patient who is eating poorly. Consider stopping it GLP 1 receptor agonist It can cause nausea and delayed gastric emptying. Bear…

…that the majority of these agents exert effects on multiple cardiac ion channels ( Dan et al ). Table 1. Singh–Vaughan Williams classification of antiarrhythmic drugs…

…gradient (mmHg) < 20 20 40 40 Peak velocity (m/s) 1,8 2,5 2,6 2,9 3,0 4,0 4,0…

…that the majority of these agents exert effects on multiple cardiac ion channels ( Dan et al ). Table 1. Singh–Vaughan Williams classification of antiarrhythmic drugs…

…one being refractory and the other capable of conducting the impulse, re entry may arise. This is illustrated in Figure 1 (study this figure carefully)…

…large number of parameters have been introduced to assess left ventricular function. The majority of these parameters can be calculated or approximated using two dimensional…

…its slow conduction, before the impulse may reach the ventricles. The physiological advantages of this configuration have been discussed in Chapter 1. Some individuals, however…

…Torsades de Pointes in Long QT Syndrome) [1] . Underlying Etiologies The etiology of VT is broadly dichotomized into structural heart disease (SHD) and structurally normal…