…mm/s (Figure 1). Gain and filter should be minimized in order to obtain optimal images. The pulsed Doppler beam can be positioned using color…

…is done using high frequency waves. The frequency of the ultrasound wave must generally be reduced in order to visualize objects located far away from…

…such that the distances between the ribs increase, providing larger windows for the ultrasound beam. The operator can sit on either side of the patient…

…Measuring the radius of PISA. Color Doppler is used to revealing PISA. As discussed earlier, aliasing occurs when using color Doppler to analyze velocities greater…

…similar to that of reverberations. Figure 4. Mirror image artifact. Side lobe artifact A 2D image is formed by allowing the ultrasound beam to sweep…

…the direction of blood flow or tissue motion. Ideally, there should be no angle (0°) between the ultrasound beam and the direction of blood flow…

…muscles are considered part of the left ventricular cavity. Other dimensions– including atrial dimensions, mitral annulus, aortic annulus, etc –are measured using the blood tissue…

…gradient (mmHg) across a valve. Example 1 : A maximum velocity of 4 m/s is measured across the aortic valve. The pressure gradient equals: 4…

…beat). This yields more time to fill the ventricles with blood (increased ventricular filling). Persons with premature beats might perceive this as palpitations, because of…

CPR ECG 1 . The initial rhythm is atrial fibrillation. The fifth beat is a ventricular premature beat. A ventricular tachycardia (VT) emerges. As evident, ventricular…

…tachycardia (VT). ECG 2 . Spontaneous termination of ventricular tachycardia (VT). ECG 3 . A single ventricular beat, followed by a three ventricular beats (VT). ECG 4…

…slurred terminal portion of the R wave in the high risk morphology, which replaces the sharp negative S wave seen in the low risk beat —…

…are supraventricular beats during sinus rhythm. A brief run of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (VT) occurs after the 4th beat. The VT terminates spontaneously after a…

…hydroxide ions are generated at the negative pole of the battery and produce a liquefactive necrosis that can reach the septal cartilage within a few…

…40% of atrial size 10 cm² or 40% of atrial size Jet orientation central variable excentric Pulmonary vein flow S dominant reduced S wave systolic…

…sinus beat typically exhibits a longer QT interval, and the T wave is interrupted by a PVC, which serves as the first beat of the…

Cardiology Genetic and miscellaneous conditions Clinical Red Flags Raising Suspicion of Cardiac Amyloidosis Demographic and Clinical Context Cardiac amyloidosis should be suspected in patients older…

…left bundle branch block alternating from one beat to another) is uncommon. Ashman's phenomenon : This type of aberration occurs when the RR interval is…

…compression of the ventricles during diastole; cardiac tamponade occurs if excess pericardial fluid causes hemodynamic effects. Electrical alternans – i.e the beat to beat variation…

…the ventricles it will spread partly or entirely outside of the conduction system and thus produce a wide QRS complex (QRS duration ≥0.12 s)…

…the ECG, this is observed as a gradual prolongation of the PR interval with each successive beat until a P wave fails to conduct, resulting…

…s: pre excitation (WPW syndrome). Second degree AV block, Mobitz I (Wenckebach): repeated episodes with progressive lengthening of the PR interval until an atrial beat…

…indexed Aortic annulus 20 31 mm 12 14 mm/m2 Sinuses of Valsalva 29 45 mm 15 20 mm/m2 Sinotubular junction 22 36 mm…

…nausea and delayed gastric emptying. Bear this in mind before sedation and endoscopy DPP 4 inhibitor A low risk of hypoglycaemia; it can usually be…

…a gradual alteration in the QRS amplitude, often with twisting of the QRS complex around the isoelectric line. Most patients display QTc 500 ms during…

Aortic dimensions using 2D echocardiography Normal interval Normal interval, adjusted Aortic annulus 20 31 mm 12 14 mm/m2 Sinus valsalva 29 45 mm 15…

…a gradual alteration in the QRS amplitude, often with twisting of the QRS complex around the isoelectric line. Most patients display QTc 500 ms during…

…clinical relevance and it may lead to misunderstanding. Use of the term PSVT is therefore not recommended. Synonyms for AVNRT Atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia Atrioventricular…

…large number of parameters have been introduced to assess left ventricular function. The majority of these parameters can be calculated or approximated using two dimensional…

…slow start of the QRS complex and this part of the QRS complex is referred to as a delta wave . QRS duration ≥0.12 s …

…PMVT): Characterized by a continuously changing QRS morphology and axis, indicating a dynamic sequence of ventricular activation. PMVT is frequently associated with acute myocardial ischemia…