…s (Figure 1). Gain and filter should be minimized in order to obtain optimal images. The pulsed Doppler beam can be positioned using color Doppler…

…can further increase the amount of gain applied to incoming sound waves. This is done using gain control or time gain compensation (TGC) . Figure 1…

…Figure 1. Orientation using the index marker. Image quality Various methods for optimizing image quality have been discussed earlier (refer to Optimization of the ultrasound…

…Measuring the radius of PISA. Color Doppler is used to revealing PISA. As discussed earlier, aliasing occurs when using color Doppler to analyze velocities greater…

…similar to that of reverberations. Figure 4. Mirror image artifact. Side lobe artifact A 2D image is formed by allowing the ultrasound beam to sweep…

…Figure 1. The Doppler effect. When the sound source moves towards the observer, the sound waves are compressed, which leads to a shortening of the…

…muscles are considered part of the left ventricular cavity. Other dimensions– including atrial dimensions, mitral annulus, aortic annulus, etc –are measured using the blood tissue…

…gradient (mmHg) across a valve. Example 1 : A maximum velocity of 4 m/s is measured across the aortic valve. The pressure gradient equals: 4…

…next sinus beat will be longer than one normal sinus interval. The P wave of a premature atrial contraction has the following characteristics ( Figure 1 …

CPR ECG 1 . The initial rhythm is atrial fibrillation. The fifth beat is a ventricular premature beat. A ventricular tachycardia (VT) emerges. As evident, ventricular…

CPR ECG 1 . Sinus rhythm interrupted by ventricular tachycardia (VT). ECG 2 . Spontaneous termination of ventricular tachycardia (VT). ECG 3 . A single ventricular beat, followed…

…red) ECG morphs in lead aVL (adapted from Obermeyer et al 1 ). Representative single beat morphs for a low risk patient (blue) and the corresponding…

…quinidine ECG 1 . The initial beats are supraventricular beats during sinus rhythm. A brief run of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (VT) occurs after the 4th beat…

…day Plastic bead, stone, toy Within a day or so Unilateral, foul smelling nasal discharge in a small child is a foreign body until proven…

…journal of echocardiography : the journal of the Working Group on Echocardiography of the European Society of Cardiology 10 (1), pp. 1–25. DOI: 10.1093…

…sinus beat typically exhibits a longer QT interval, and the T wave is interrupted by a PVC, which serves as the first beat of the…

…or those undergoing aortic valve replacement [1, 5, 10]. A history of increasing frequency of hospitalizations and visits for heart failure without disease recognition in…

…in the length of the cardiac cycle causes aberration. Figure 1. The figure shows a supraventricular extrasystole (i.e a premature atrial complex/beat) which…

…compression of the ventricles during diastole; cardiac tamponade occurs if excess pericardial fluid causes hemodynamic effects. Electrical alternans – i.e the beat to beat variation…

…or entirely outside of the conduction system and thus produce a wide QRS complex (QRS duration ≥0.12 s). Refer to Figure 1 for an…

…degree of block, the more difficult it may be to verify that the PR interval is being gradually prolonged. Indeed, in 2 to 1 block…

…context. 1. Rhythm Check Is the ventricular rate regular at 50–100 beats/min? Is there a P wave in front of every ventricular complex…

…for body surface area (BSA), given in square metres. Aorta, standardised values Standardised values (mean ± SD) Age Aortic annulus, women Aortic annulus, men Sinuses of…

…of hypoglycaemia in a patient who is eating poorly. Consider stopping it GLP 1 receptor agonist It can cause nausea and delayed gastric emptying. Bear…

…that the majority of these agents exert effects on multiple cardiac ion channels ( Dan et al ). Table 1. Singh–Vaughan Williams classification of antiarrhythmic drugs…

…1. Zoghbi, William A.; Enriquez Sarano, Maurice; Foster, Elyse; Grayburn, Paul A.; Kraft, Carol D.; Levine, Robert A. et al. (2003): Recommendations for evaluation of…

…that the majority of these agents exert effects on multiple cardiac ion channels ( Dan et al ). Table 1. Singh–Vaughan Williams classification of antiarrhythmic drugs…

…one being refractory and the other capable of conducting the impulse, re entry may arise. This is illustrated in Figure 1 (study this figure carefully)…

…function depends on a large number of parameters, including atrial function, valvular function, and ventricular function. A large body of science has demonstrated that these…

…its slow conduction, before the impulse may reach the ventricles. The physiological advantages of this configuration have been discussed in Chapter 1. Some individuals, however…

…Torsades de Pointes in Long QT Syndrome) [1] . Underlying Etiologies The etiology of VT is broadly dichotomized into structural heart disease (SHD) and structurally normal…