…The pulsed Doppler beam can be positioned using color Doppler (to visualize the direction of flow) and continuous Doppler (to locate the maximum flow velocities…

…is done using high frequency waves. The frequency of the ultrasound wave must generally be reduced in order to visualize objects located far away from…

…distances between the ribs increase, providing larger windows for the ultrasound beam. The operator can sit on either side of the patient, depending on preferences…

…Measuring the radius of PISA. Color Doppler is used to revealing PISA. As discussed earlier, aliasing occurs when using color Doppler to analyze velocities greater…

…similar to that of reverberations. Figure 4. Mirror image artifact. Side lobe artifact A 2D image is formed by allowing the ultrasound beam to sweep…

…the direction of blood flow or tissue motion. Ideally, there should be no angle (0°) between the ultrasound beam and the direction of blood flow…

…muscles are considered part of the left ventricular cavity. Other dimensions– including atrial dimensions, mitral annulus, aortic annulus, etc –are measured using the blood tissue…

…general, v is the maximum velocity measured using Doppler. Moreover, the first part of the formula (0.5 • D blood ) can be approximated to 4…

…beat). This yields more time to fill the ventricles with blood (increased ventricular filling). Persons with premature beats might perceive this as palpitations, because of…

CPR ECG 1 . The initial rhythm is atrial fibrillation. The fifth beat is a ventricular premature beat. A ventricular tachycardia (VT) emerges. As evident, ventricular…

…tachycardia (VT). ECG 2 . Spontaneous termination of ventricular tachycardia (VT). ECG 3 . A single ventricular beat, followed by a three ventricular beats (VT). ECG 4…

…prediction tool currently exists. At the other end, roughly two thirds of ICDs implanted for reduced LVEF never deliver an appropriate shock, so the false…

…are supraventricular beats during sinus rhythm. A brief run of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (VT) occurs after the 4th beat. The VT terminates spontaneously after a…

…hydroxide ions are generated at the negative pole of the battery and produce a liquefactive necrosis that can reach the septal cartilage within a few…

…Additional PISA parameters Mild regurgiation Moderate regurgitation Severe regurgitation Regurgitation volume (ml/beat) < 30 30 59 59 Regurgitation volume = EROA x TVI Regurgitation…

…sinus beat typically exhibits a longer QT interval, and the T wave is interrupted by a PVC, which serves as the first beat of the…

Cardiology Genetic and miscellaneous conditions Clinical Red Flags Raising Suspicion of Cardiac Amyloidosis Demographic and Clinical Context Cardiac amyloidosis should be suspected in patients older…

…left bundle branch block alternating from one beat to another) is uncommon. Ashman's phenomenon : This type of aberration occurs when the RR interval is…

…cardiac tamponade. The classical signs of cardiac tamponade are hypotension, muffled heart sounds and jugular venous distention. Other frequent symptoms are pulsus paradoxus, pericardial friction…

…a premature ventricular contraction. Classification of premature ventricular contractions When every other beat on the ECG is a premature ventricular complex (PVC), the rhythm is…

…the ECG, this is observed as a gradual prolongation of the PR interval with each successive beat until a P wave fails to conduct, resulting…

…block, Mobitz I (Wenckebach): repeated episodes with progressive lengthening of the PR interval until an atrial beat is blocked (the QRS complex fails to appear)…

…indexed Aortic annulus 20 31 mm 12 14 mm/m2 Sinuses of Valsalva 29 45 mm 15 20 mm/m2 Sinotubular junction 22 36 mm…

…nausea and delayed gastric emptying. Bear this in mind before sedation and endoscopy DPP 4 inhibitor A low risk of hypoglycaemia; it can usually be…

…a gradual alteration in the QRS amplitude, often with twisting of the QRS complex around the isoelectric line. Most patients display QTc 500 ms during…

Aortic dimensions using 2D echocardiography Normal interval Normal interval, adjusted Aortic annulus 20 31 mm 12 14 mm/m2 Sinus valsalva 29 45 mm 15…

…a gradual alteration in the QRS amplitude, often with twisting of the QRS complex around the isoelectric line. Most patients display QTc 500 ms during…

…impulse reaches the atrioventricular node when there are two pathways, one being refractory and the other capable of conducting the impulse, re entry may arise…

…large number of parameters have been introduced to assess left ventricular function. The majority of these parameters can be calculated or approximated using two dimensional…

…ECG, clinical characteristics and management Pre excitation The atrioventricular node and bundle of His are normally the only communication between the atria and the ventricles…

…PMVT): Characterized by a continuously changing QRS morphology and axis, indicating a dynamic sequence of ventricular activation. PMVT is frequently associated with acute myocardial ischemia…