…The pulsed Doppler beam can be positioned using color Doppler (to visualize the direction of flow) and continuous Doppler (to locate the maximum flow velocities…

…of gain applied to incoming sound waves. This is done using gain control or time gain compensation (TGC) . Figure 1. TGC (time gain compensation) and…

…Figure 1. Orientation using the index marker. Image quality Various methods for optimizing image quality have been discussed earlier (refer to Optimization of the ultrasound…

…radius and area of PISA are calculated as follows: area PISA = 2 • π • r PISA 2 The flow (Q) can be calculated using PISA…

…that of reverberations. Figure 4. Mirror image artifact. Side lobe artifact A 2D image is formed by allowing the ultrasound beam to sweep back and…

…the direction of blood flow or tissue motion. Ideally, there should be no angle (0°) between the ultrasound beam and the direction of blood flow…

…trabeculae and papillary muscles are considered part of the left ventricular cavity. Other dimensions– including atrial dimensions, mitral annulus, aortic annulus, etc –are measured using…

…The Doppler Equation). Any angle error between the Doppler beam and the blood flow will result in an underestimation of the velocity. In clinical practice…

…if the premature beat reaches the atrioventricular node before it has repolarized completely. The earlier the impulse reaches the atrioventricular node (and bundle of His)…

CPR ECG 1 . The initial rhythm is atrial fibrillation. The fifth beat is a ventricular premature beat. A ventricular tachycardia (VT) emerges. As evident, ventricular…

CPR ECG 1 . Sinus rhythm interrupted by ventricular tachycardia (VT). ECG 2 . Spontaneous termination of ventricular tachycardia (VT). ECG 3 . A single ventricular beat, followed…

…lead aVL (adapted from Obermeyer et al 1 ). Representative single beat morphs for a low risk patient (blue) and the corresponding high risk morph (red…

…rhythm. A brief run of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (VT) occurs after the 4th beat. The VT terminates spontaneously after a few beats, and reoccurs again…

…hydroxide ions are generated at the negative pole of the battery and produce a liquefactive necrosis that can reach the septal cartilage within a few…

…journal of echocardiography : the journal of the Working Group on Echocardiography of the European Society of Cardiology 10 (1), pp. 1–25. DOI: 10.1093…

…and alterations in reentry pathways. Proarrhythmic events occur in 5% to 10% of patients receiving antiarrhythmic agents, and this risk is amplified in the presence…

…or those undergoing aortic valve replacement [1, 5, 10]. A history of increasing frequency of hospitalizations and visits for heart failure without disease recognition in…

…from one beat to another) is uncommon. Ashman's phenomenon : This type of aberration occurs when the RR interval is first prolonged and then shortened…

…i.e the beat to beat variation i electrical amplitude – is the ECG hallmark of cardiac tamponade. Causes of pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade The…

…or entirely outside of the conduction system and thus produce a wide QRS complex (QRS duration ≥0.12 s). Refer to Figure 1 for an…

…find it difficult to differentiate between Mobitz type 1 and Mobitz type 2. A very simple rule of thumb can be applied to do this…

…35 mm. Q waves: pathological Q waves (≥ 0.03 s and/or an amplitude ≥ 25 % of the R wave amplitude in the same lead, in…

…regurgitation Severe regurgitation EROA (cm²) < 0.10 0.10 0.29 0.29 Regurgitation volume (ml/beat) < 30 30 59 59 Regurgitation fraction…

…of hypoglycaemia in a patient who is eating poorly. Consider stopping it GLP 1 receptor agonist It can cause nausea and delayed gastric emptying. Bear…

…due to sinus pause or post VPC pause) results in augmentation of early afterdpolarization amplitude (typically seen with large T wave amplitude), and QT prolongation…

…1. Zoghbi, William A.; Enriquez Sarano, Maurice; Foster, Elyse; Grayburn, Paul A.; Kraft, Carol D.; Levine, Robert A. et al. (2003): Recommendations for evaluation of…

…due to sinus pause or post VPC pause) results in augmentation of early afterdpolarization amplitude (typically seen with large T wave amplitude), and QT prolongation…

…one being refractory and the other capable of conducting the impulse, re entry may arise. This is illustrated in Figure 1 (study this figure carefully…

…approximated using two dimensional echocardiography. The most widely adopted parameter is the ejection fraction (EF). The concept of ejection fraction was introduced by Braunwald and…

…1, pre excitation causes secondary ST T changes. This is due to the fact that pre excitation leads to abnormal depolarization of the ventricles and…

…de Pointes in Long QT Syndrome) [1] . Underlying Etiologies The etiology of VT is broadly dichotomized into structural heart disease (SHD) and structurally normal hearts…