…mass. Waist circumference and the waist to hip ratio provide additional information about visceral adiposity and may correlate more closely with outcomes than BMI, particularly…

…patients with diabetes and combined dyslipidaemia, non HDL C is particularly relevant because it captures triglyceride rich lipoproteins in addition to LDL and other apoB…

…to water by gravity according to the manufacturers' standard measurements. Blood and colloids flow more slowly, and every additional length of tubing, every tap and…

…LDL receptor. They lower LDL C by approximately 50–60%, including in patients receiving background statin therapy and in those unable to tolerate statins, provided…

…atherosclerotic vascular disease or familial hypercholesterolaemia, addition of bempedoic acid to statin therapy reduced LDL C by approximately 16.5%; the reduction in a subgroup…

…according to the statin, dose, and individual response. In general, statins reduce LDL C by approximately 30–55%; doubling the dose produces an additional reduction…

…activity and cardiovascular benefit is curvilinear. The largest relative improvement occurs when an inactive person becomes even modestly active, while additional activity continues to confer…

…presentations Left main disease may be clinically silent, and revascularisation recommendations are not restricted to patients with symptoms. Current guidance supports revascularisation for significant left…

…interleukin 1β and interleukin 6 signalling, lower C reactive protein, and impair neutrophil chemotaxis toward inflammatory sites. Its cardiovascular effects therefore appear to reflect…

…needed to treat (NNT) for the ACLS specific interventions is much higher or uncertain, meaning that the efficacy of these interventions is much lower or…

…raise strong suspicion of another or an additional cause [1]. Delirium tremens most often begins after one to three days but can start earlier in…

…RA were reported to have approximately twice the myocardial infarction risk of age matched controls. Cardiovascular events occur earlier, and approximately half of premature deaths…

…scale IVUS include lower spatial resolution than OCT and imperfect discrimination between plaque components. Radiofrequency or virtual histology IVUS can provide additional information regarding calcific…

…used as an adjunct to dietary measures and maximally tolerated statin therapy, with or without other LDL C lowering drugs, when additional LDL C reduction…

…angina pectoris and acute myocardial infarction are categorized under acute coronary syndromes (ACS). Aortic dissection Pneumothorax Pulmonary embolism Mediastinitis (rare condition) In addition to these…

…be obtained by other imaging methods, namely exercise capacity (and VO2 max , see below). In addition to exercise capacity, stress testing also provides information on…

…surface between the transducer and the skin. Generous use of gel is recommended. In addition to the gel, it is important to apply some pressure…

…to AMP, and reuptake into cells through a nucleoside transport system. Because of these highly efficient elimination pathways, adenosine has an extremely short elimination half…

…ventricular function is therefore an important therapeutic objective. Exercise intolerance Exercise limitation is multifactorial. In addition to elevated exercise induced filling pressures, patients may have:

…to diagnose endocarditis. With 2D and later 3D ultrasound, the technology has been greatly refined. Similarly, the development of transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) has been extremely…

…pacing. 25 mm/s. In addition to stimulation artifacts, ventricular pacing yields wide QRS complexes with LBBB morphology (i.e left bundle branch block appearance)…

…myocardium and valves. ECG is recorded in all patients with suspected pericardial disease. In addition to echocardiography, ECG and clinical examination, blood tests and other…

…only as strong as its weakest link, which means that all components of the chain must function and interact flawlessly to maximize survival. Figure 2…

…In addition, color Doppler can be used to align the continuous Doppler. Figure 2. Color Doppler reveals the direction and extent of aortic valve regurgitation…

…with greater ST elevation in aVR had higher crude in hospital and 6 month mortality (up to 18% at 6 months for 1 mm elevation…

…with correction doses alone according to the glucose value, without basal insulin (a so called sliding scale), gives poorer control and is not recommended as…

…Additional pharmacological options include quinidine, ranolazine, and procainamide [4]. Catheter Ablation : Catheter ablation may be employed as an interventional alternative to suppress the arrhythmia [4…

…to 3 hours after the onset of myocardial infarction. Cardiac troponin T and troponin I have emerged as the preferred biomarkers because they are extremely…

…more is required to diagnose a complete left bundle branch block . In addition to prolonged QRS duration, LBBB is characterized by deep and broad S…

…year . The injection is therefore a tool to make rehabilitation possible, not an alternative to it. See the separate guide to joint aspiration and injection…

…According to the European Society for Cardiology, 2800 adults per 1 million individuals have congenital heart defects, and half of them have moderate or complicated…

…to common cancers ( Stewart et al ). In addition, heart failure is a disabling condition with a very negative impact on quality of life. Approximately half…

…to common cancers ( Stewart et al ). In addition, heart failure is a disabling condition with a very negative impact on quality of life. Approximately half…

…evolved from a hazardous experiment in the 1930s, to a routine, safe, and sophisticated treatment used worldwide. Artificial pacemakers have benefitted immensely from advances in…

…without any recurring costs. Purchasing this membership grants you permanent access to the website and there are no additional costs and no recurring costs. Ever.

…Addison's disease, renal failure, tamoxifen, lithium, thiazide diuretics, D vitamin and calcium overdose. ECG changes due to hypercalcemia Common ECG changes Shortened QT interval…

…model, promoting earlier identification and treatment of high risk ACS patients. Future randomized trials are needed to validate this paradigm and support its broader adoption…

…acute pancreatitis, alkalosis due to hyperventilation, rhabdomyolysis (particularly the initial phase), sepsis, malignancies with osteoblastic metastases, diminished calcium absorption and/or enhanced calcium excretion, chronic…

Introduction to Coronary Atherosclerosis, Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by…

…be universal adoption of the Cabrera format. This recommendation, 1 was issued 16 years ago and fortunately all modern ECG machines can switch to the…

…The test measures the ability of the adrenal cortex to respond to maximal ACTH stimulation, and it is rarely the injection itself that determines whether…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and Scope Primary prevention aims to prevent the clinical manifestation of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in individuals without established clinical CVD. It…

…Figure 1 is important, as it shows the coronary arteries and their relation to the ECG leads. Note that Figure 1 is a right dominant…

…exclusively at the infarct related artery (IRA), or it may extend to additional non infarct related lesions. Culprit only revascularization treats the artery responsible for…

…additional mechanisms include vascular stiffness and accelerated medial calcification related to disturbed calcium–phosphate metabolism. Patients with advanced CKD are particularly vulnerable to structural cardiac…

…survive with severe, diffuse CAD that is no longer amenable to additional mechanical revascularization. Despite treatment with antianginal drugs and PCI or CABG, daily or…

…by the International Society for Holter and Non Invasive Electrocardiology , where it is stated that it is extremely uncommon to have a non ischemic ECG…

…mmHg Valve area according to the continuity equation (cm²) ≤ 1 cm² ZTime velocity integral of the tricuspid inflow (cm) 60 cm Pressure half time (T…

…the absence of a pacemaker. Use of intravenous rhythm control antiarrhythmics (class I and class III) within 4 hours prior to, as well as in…

…considerably according to age and the presence of concomitant risk factors. In contrast, patients with confirmed hypertension generally require BP lowering treatment without additional risk…

…patients with an eGFR of 30–44 mL/min/1.73 m2 and up to 17% when eGFR is below 30 mL/min/1.73…

…ACS Approximately 20–25% additional reduction compared with simvastatin monotherapy Bempedoic acid plus ezetimibe Approximately 38% reduction PCSK9 inhibitor added to statin therapy Approximately 60…

…18% to 52%. They frequently occur in patients with severe coronary artery disease, defined in the source material as stenosis greater than 70%, and are…

…in stent restenosis. Type 5 MI: MI related to CABG. Type 4b and type 4c events fulfil the criteria for type 1 MI. Procedural myocardial…

…imaging finding; it can refine the decision to test and may identify patients who require preventive therapy even when functional testing is normal. Probability categories…

…vasodilator responses to vasoconstriction; however, endothelial dysfunction alone is not sufficient, and an additional trigger is required. Potential triggers include thrombus formation and sympathetic activation…

…DCM) refers to idiopathic or genetic dilation of the left ventricle . Patients with DCM typically develop heart failure early in life and a family history…

…These additional leads are V3R, V4R and V7. V3R and V4R are used in children under the age of 5 years due to the fact…

…possess an additional pathway between the atria and the ventricles. Such pathways may be conductive, such that they can transmit the atrial impulse to the…

…been instrumental in identifying and staging chronic kidney disease (CKD), facilitating early intervention and management. Standardization: Its widespread adoption has led to standardized reporting of…