…Risk factors for calcification overlap with risk factors for coronary heart disease (atherosclerosis). The average age at diagnosis of aortic stenosis is 75 years in…

…when medical therapy is insufficient, or when concomitant valvular disease (e.g mitral stenosis) requires intervention. Valve replacement can be performed with biological or mechanical…

…of which are rheumatic heart disease, congenital malformations, radiation complications, metastases, myxoma, cardiac thrombi, etc (Table 1). Most causes of mitral stenosis yield a progressive…

…of pulmonic stenosis. Tetralogy of Fallot Transposition of the great arteries) Dysplastic, bicuspid or unicuspid pulmonary valve Noonan syndrome : 60% of all individuals with Noonan…

…adherence, pregnancy after the first trimester under specialist care). Rheumatic mitral stenosis with atrial fibrillation. In uncomplicated atrial fibrillation and in ordinary venous thromboembolism, a…

…develops if the cardiac output is insufficient. Aortic regurgitation may cause myocardial ischemia because cardiac output diminishes in parallel with increasing myocardial load (and hence…

…cancer). Inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, and rheumatic fever. Aortic dissection rupturing into the pericardium. Idiopathic pericardial effusion. Renal failure…

…The pulmonary, aortic and mitral valve must also be evaluated, particularly in the setting of rheumatic valvular disease. The regurgitation is considered severe if the…

…of pulmonary involvement in systemic disease, for example rheumatoid arthritis or scleroderma, and during treatment with pulmonary toxic drugs. Contraindications Forced expiration raises the pressure…

…bacterial, protozoal, fungal, parasitic), autoimmune processes (giant cell myocarditis, sarcoidosis, rheumatic heart disease, connective tissue disease, eosinophilic myocarditis), toxins (alcohol, cocaine, cancer therapies), or physical…