…Patients without haemodynamic instability require more detailed prognostic evaluation using two complementary domains: Indicators of acute PE severity , including clinical findings, RV dysfunction on imaging…

…ECG finding is the ST segment depressions. In STE ACS, on the other hand, the ST segment depressions are secondary findings and the primary findings…

…a standardized framework for identifying and localizing areas of ischemia or infarction. This segmentation facilitates precise reporting and ensures consistent communication of findings across clinicians…

…left ventricular hypertrophy or abnormal LV filling supports the diagnosis Unlike HFpEF, objective evidence of structural or functional cardiac abnormality or raised natriuretic peptides is…

…the sinoatrial node) is a common finding in athletes and during sleep; in these scenarios, it should not be considered abnormal. On the other hand…

…MI) is a clinical diagnosis that integrates myocardial injury, evidence of acute myocardial ischaemia, electrocardiographic findings, cardiac biomarkers, imaging, angiography, and, occasionally, pathological examination. Pathologically…

…and physical examination Initial assessment should establish whether AF is associated with acute haemodynamic compromise, pulmonary oedema, or evidence of coronary ischaemia. These findings determine…

…the constriction of the pupils in response to light – is a fundamental neurological examination finding that reflects brainstem (midbrain) function. In the context of cardiac…

…This is also a normal finding. Abnormal (pathological) causes of sinus bradycardia In all other situations, sinus bradycardia should be regarded as a pathological finding…

…waves were present on previous recording, the amplitude must be increased in order to suggest ischemia. Inverted U waves are even more typical of ischemia …

…formerly termed Prinzmetal or variant angina, is myocardial ischaemia caused by transient abnormal vasoconstriction of one or more coronary arteries. Epicardial spasm produces a reversible…

…Rhythm control, on the other hand, attempts to restore sinus rhythm by use of antiarrhythmic drugs. Randomized controlled trials have not demonstrated any clear difference…

…A markedly raised GGT with the other tests normal is most often enzyme induction by alcohol or drugs and is often of no clinical significance…

…Moderate or severe chronic kidney disease (CKD) Hypertension mediated organ damage (HMOD) Probable or definite familial hypercholesterolaemia Other markedly abnormal single risk factors or genetic…

…6% High risk 5 or more 5.8% Interpretation of ATRIA risk score. Comparison with other bleeding risk models Several bleeding risk assessment tools exist…

…Coronary fistulae represent abnormal communications between a coronary artery and a cardiac chamber or vessel. Other congenital anomalies include anomalous origin of a coronary artery…

…at a rate exceeding that of the sinoatrial (SA) node. This enhanced atrial activity is most commonly attributable to abnormal automaticity or re entry mechanisms…

…cardiac tamponade. The classical signs of cardiac tamponade are hypotension, muffled heart sounds and jugular venous distention. Other frequent symptoms are pulsus paradoxus, pericardial friction…

…a premature ventricular contraction. Classification of premature ventricular contractions When every other beat on the ECG is a premature ventricular complex (PVC), the rhythm is…

…physical activity and any other precipitating factor. Thresholds The thresholds below are used above all in diabetes. The severity of the symptoms and the patient…

…m² Abnormal urinalysis or renal imaging Risk of progression rises with proteinuria and depends on cause 2 60 mL/min/1.73 m² Abnormal urinalysis…

…in other reports. It is more frequent in women and in patients presenting with NSTEMI than in those presenting with STEMI. Approximately one third of…

…focuses on practical diagnostic and therapeutic considerations, with recommendations aligned with current guidelines from both the American Heart Association (AHA) and American College of Cardiology…

…99th percentile in a healthy population. Troponin levels higher than the 99th percentile of a normal population are considered elevated (abnormal). Criteria for elevated troponins:…

…all other situations, sinus arrest/pause should be considered abnormal, and the following differential diagnoses are at hand: Sinus node dysfunction. Side effects of drugs…

…other situations than does ventricular rhythm; idioventricular rhythm is primarily seen after reperfusion in an occluded coronary artery. It also occurs as side effect of…

…is which change can explain the pH, and whether the other variable lies within the expected range of compensation. Sample type and baseline values An…

…Delirium is common but often missed. On medical and geriatric wards a substantial proportion of older patients are affected, and the incidence is particularly high…

…in the myocardium. The electrical potential difference exists between ischemic and normal myocardium and it results in displacement of the ST segment. The ST segment…

…men and women, respectively, should be considered abnormal. A common cause of abnormally large T waves is hyperkalemia, which results in high, pointed and asymmetric…

…acute stressor superimposed on the patient's baseline cardiovascular state. For instance, a patient with stable CAD may present with clinical manifestations of myocardial ischaemia…

…risk factor [2] . This change reflects robust evidence that female sex alone, in the absence of other comorbidities, does not significantly increase stroke risk. Conversely…

…to the QRS morphology during LBBB. Stimulation in other regions of the ventricle may result in a different QRS morphology. If the lead tip is…

…favorable prognosis, as compared with other forms of ventricular tachycardia. Mechanisms of ventricular tachycardia Ventricular tachycardia (VT) may emerge due to increased/abnormal automaticity, re…

…Components of the HAS BLED Score The HAS BLED score is an acronym that stands for: H ypertension A bnormal renal/liver function S troke…

ECG Introduction to ECG interpretation The QRS complex (ventricular complex): normal and abnormal configurations and intervals A complete QRS complex consists of a Q , R…

…Hypocalcemia Causes of hypocalcemia Acute pancreatitis, pancreas surgery, alkalosis (hyperventilation), rhabdomyolysis, septicemia (sepsis), osteolytic cancer metastases, abnormal calcium absorption (gastrointestinal) and resorption (from primary urine)…

…whereas others have brief or asymptomatic episodes that are not detected during routine clinical assessment. The clinical burden of AF does not reliably predict stroke…

…mild. 6. Assess the indication for antibiotics on the basis of sputum purulence, the other cardinal symptoms and the severity of the illness. 7. Start…

…interpreting platelet function tests for HIT. Other cosiderations Based on a relationship observed in the PLATO study between the maintenance dose of ASA and the

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…LDL C, regardless of the drug used to achieve it. Absolute benefit depends on baseline cardiovascular risk and the magnitude of LDL C reduction. Thus…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…2]. STEMI and other ECG patterns suggesting acute coronary occlusion are time dependent conditions. The decision on immediate reperfusion is based on symptoms, the ECG…

…on the history, a positive Dix–Hallpike test and the absence of other neurological findings. The treatment is a repositioning manoeuvre. Indications Brief attacks of…

…NSAIDs). Other contraindications: Hemophilia. Thrombocytopenia. Active gastric or duodenal ulcers. Liver cirrhosis. Severe heart failure. Doses 100 mg/day during the third trimester of pregnancy…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…C and other apoB containing lipoproteins within the arterial wall. This initiates inflammatory reactions that promote plaque formation and progression. As the burden of retained…

…aggregation. Because aspirin affects only one pathway of platelet activation, its antiplatelet effect is relatively limited compared with agents that inhibit other platelet pathways. The…

…peripheral artery disease (PAD), and other manifestations of systemic atherosclerosis. The principal clinical concern is cerebral embolism or haemodynamic compromise leading to transient ischaemic attack…

…and other symptoms may occur without chest pain and should be considered anginal equivalents. The emergency evaluation of non traumatic chest discomfort is structured around…

…three main questions discussed in media, blogs and on social plattforms: Is high cholesterol a true cause of coronary artery disease? Does diet affect cholesterol…

…depends on symptoms, serial electrocardiography, and cardiac troponin findings. The default treatment after ACS, whether or not PCI is performed, is 12 months of DAPT…

…or other vascular beds. Malignant hypertension represents an extreme form in which acute microvascular injury occurs, classically involving fibrinoid necrosis of small arteries in the…

…of revascularization Expected effects on death, myocardial infarction and stroke Likelihood of repeat revascularization Symptom burden and treatment goals Diabetes, left ventricular function and other…

…Other mechanisms include thrombosis, embolism, vasculitis, fibromuscular dysplasia, arterial entrapment, cystic adventitial disease and trauma. Atherosclerotic PAD is a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather…

…and cardiovascular rationale Smoking cessation is the complete discontinuation of tobacco smoking, with avoidance of second hand smoke and, where possible, other inhaled nicotine products…

…a notch on the apex. Please note that for most clinicians it is not necessary to be able to determine the direction of the re…

…cancel each other out. However, the ECG may show features characteristic of biventricular hypertrophy. Biventricular hypertrophy ECG In case the ECG or other examinations suggest…

…myocardial ischemia. Other symptoms include dyspnea, pain radiating to the left arm/shoulder/throat, palpitations, back pain and selected cases of upper abdominal pain. An…