…heterogeneity and perfusion defects in areas supplied by the disease artery. Thus, vasodilators replicate the effects of exercise on coronary arteries, without the need for…

…when multiple modifiable and non modifiable risk factors converge. The electrophysiological mechanism underlying TdP involves prolonged ventricular repolarisation, which allows for the recovery of time…

…focal arterial lesions. Although epicardial coronary arteries are a major site of disease, atherosclerosis is systemic and may affect multiple arterial territories. The arterial wall…

…multiple angiographic projections. Although traditionally regarded as an anatomical examination, contemporary ICA can provide complementary functional and structural information. Coronary pressure measurements permit assessment of…

…the co administration of multiple QT prolonging medications, and drug accumulation secondary to renal or hepatic impairment or the inhibition of cytochrome P450 metabolism [1…

…infection. Suspected inflammatory disease: multiple sclerosis, Guillain–Barré syndrome, autoimmune encephalitis. Meningeal carcinomatosis and CNS involvement in haematological malignancy. Investigation of dementia with biomarkers (amyloid…

…that the majority of these agents exert effects on multiple cardiac ion channels ( Dan et al ). Table 1. Singh–Vaughan Williams classification of antiarrhythmic drugs…

…with multiple ventricular premature beats) spontaneously converting to Torsade de Pointes ventricular tachycardia. Notice how arterial blood pressure (ABP) drops at the onset of TdP…

…anatomical complexity of CAD, particularly in patients with multivessel disease or left main coronary artery disease . It integrates multiple variables, including the number of lesions…

…methods may also contribute. The cardioprotective effect is therefore likely to result from the cumulative influence of multiple modest dietary changes. Mediterranean type diets provide…

…aldosterone levels. Clinical Presentation and Symptoms In the management of heart failure, digoxin improves hemodynamics without increasing heart rate or decreasing blood pressure, making it…

…In the earliest stages of ischemia, this may manifest as tall, positive hyperacute T waves [15]. Profound ST elevation across multiple leads generally indicates very…

…of systemic arteriopathy rather than being regarded solely as an isolated coronary event. SCAD predominantly affects the left sided coronary circulation and may involve multiple…

…vasoconstriction of one or more coronary arteries. Epicardial spasm produces a reversible functional occlusion and usually causes transmural ischaemia. The resulting abnormalities in left ventricular…

…with or without left ventricular hypertrophy. Among patients with NSTE ACS undergoing angiography, approximately 10% have no critical epicardial stenosis. In some of these patients…

…reperfusion therapy. This approach fails to identify a substantial proportion of patients with acute coronary occlusion (ACO) who present without diagnostic ST elevation, often resulting…

…that the majority of these agents exert effects on multiple cardiac ion channels ( Dan et al ). Table 1. Singh–Vaughan Williams classification of antiarrhythmic drugs…

…the early stages of aortic stenosis, stroke volume becomes smaller. Reduced stroke volumes and increased resistance in the valve result in compensatory left ventricular hypertrophy…

…waves can be reflected multiple times between dense structures ( i.e structures with high echogenicity). For each reflection, a portion of the sound waves return…

…multiple leads P pulmonale Figure 1. ECG changes seen in left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH). The electrical vector of the left…

…This has multiple effects which are discussed in detail below. This article will deal with the physiology of exercise and emphasis will be placed on…

…90–95% of individuals with hypertension have essential hypertension , also referred to as primary hypertension . Essential hypertension is defined as hypertension without an identifiable underlying…

…the shape of a hemisphere with multiple layers. Flow velocity is equal within each layer (depicted with different colors). (B) Schematic illustration of mitral regurgitation…

…nomenclature for echocardiography. The left ventricle is divided into 17 segments for 2D echocardiography. One can identify these segments in multiple views. Note that the…

…stretching of myocardial fibers). The opposite is also true; the stiffer the myocardium, the slower and less pronounced the relaxation. Left ventricular compliance Multiple factors…

…resistant to resolution. Known predictors of cardiac arrest The only risk biomarker in genuinely widespread use is left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), measured by echocardiography…

…PAU is strongly associated with extensive atherosclerosis and frequently occurs in older patients with multiple vascular comorbidities. An isolated PAU is one without associated IMH…

…selection Aspirin should not be prescribed routinely to individuals without established ASCVD. Selection requires simultaneous consideration of: Estimated cardiovascular risk Baseline bleeding risk Age Diabetes…

…difficult. In patients with normal renal function, the occurrence of contrast induced AKI is negligible or very low. Risk rises substantially with chronic kidney disease…

…atherosclerotic plaque, and the severity and distribution of coronary stenosis. Modern cardiac CT can acquire a three dimensional cardiac dataset within approximately 5–15 seconds…

…contraction and relaxation. Structural and vascular consequences Common structural consequences include left ventricular hypertrophy, left atrial enlargement, and abnormalities of diastolic filling. Mitral regurgitation may…

…embolize systemically. Observational data indicate approximately a fourfold greater risk of embolic events in patients with LV thrombus than in matched patients without thrombus. Factors…

…may nevertheless be diagnosed without proteinuria when clinical symptoms or laboratory abnormalities indicate end organ injury. Eclampsia is the occurrence of new onset seizures or…

…despite multiple antianginal agents and prior revascularization procedures. In many patients, the burden is sufficiently severe to limit ordinary activities and substantially impair quality of…

…often exhibit multiple villi . These myxomas are more likely to embolize (Cardiac Thromboembolism). There are genetic syndromes that result in the emergence of multiple myxomas…

…orient and display the heart using the long axis of the left ventricle and selected planes oriented at 90° angles relative to the long axis…

…end of the T wave. The QT interval should be measured in 3 to 5 consecutive beats in leads II, V5 and V6. Leads without…

…adjusted using multiple controls that each represent a specific depth in the image (Figure 1). The bottom control adjusts gain at the bottom of the…

…Thus, with regards to measuring ventricular dimensions, trabeculae and papillary muscles are considered part of the left ventricular cavity. Other dimensions– including atrial dimensions, mitral…

… LVOT = left ventricular outflow tract; VTI = velocity time integral. According to the formula, stroke volume is the product of area and VTI in…

…Left to right shunt. Right ventricular dysfunction due to pressure/volume overload is the most common cause. Ebstein's anomaly The prevalence of Ebstein's…

…terminated. Reliability as a function of workload In order for the exercise test to be reliable, the patient must perform maximally, without risking serious complications…

…sinoatrial block impulses are blocked sporadically (without any Wenckebach phenomenon). The pauses between the visible beats are always multiples of the normal P P interval …

…in subsequent chapters. Stroke volume (SV) Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle into the aorta during systole. It is…