…tone) and decreases during expiration (due to increased vagal tone). This results in a slightly irregular rhythm. Sinus arrhythmia occurs in the majority of healthy…

…rhythm except from the fact that the rhythm is slightly irregular ( Figure 1 ). This is mostly a normal (physiological) finding, particularly among young and healthy…

…the end of expiration. It provides an integrated view of ventilation , metabolism , and perfusion . Carbon dioxide, a byproduct of aerobic metabolism, is transported from the…

…at the level of the individual: it does not distinguish muscle from fat and takes no account of fat distribution. Waist circumference and the waist…

…only investigation that distinguishes obstructive from restrictive impairment of lung function, and COPD cannot be diagnosed without it . The quality of the test determines its…

…blood flow from the pulmonary vein to the left atrium is hampered. This reduces the filling of the left atrium and, accordingly, the left ventricle…

…may be retrosternal or left precordial and can radiate to the neck, arms, or left shoulder. It may occasionally be steady and resemble myocardial ischaemia…