…According to the European Society for Cardiology, 2800 adults per 1 million individuals have congenital heart defects, and half of them have moderate or complicated…

…include all these aspects. Most books lacked clinical management, key aspects of pathophysiology and discussions on differential diagnoses for each condition. Moreover, most books included…

…multiple sclerosis, Guillain–Barré syndrome, autoimmune encephalitis. Meningeal carcinomatosis and CNS involvement in haematological malignancy. Investigation of dementia with biomarkers (amyloid, tau, phospho tau). Measurement…

…echogenicity). For each reflection, a portion of the sound waves return to the transducer and produce a copy of the reflector on the image. Hence…

…a specific stenosis. Clinical Role and Indications CAC scoring is principally a risk stratification tool for individuals without known clinical coronary artery disease, especially when…

…for this are explained below. The normal P wave contour on ECG The normal P wave (Figure 1, upper panel) is typically smooth, symmetric and…

…improves vascular health and may reduce cardiovascular risk within several years, although risk may remain higher than that of never smokers for a prolonged period…

…as long as it encounters excitable tissue. As it circulates within the node, it emits impulses both upwards to the atria and downwards (via His…

…activity. This is partly due to the rise of cardiac imaging and invasive electrophysiological methods which allow for detailed in vivo studies of arrhythmias. However…

…Pressure (CVP) This equation illustrates that MAP is determined by the volume of blood the heart pumps and the resistance encountered in the systemic circulation…

…For patients with bundle branch blocks, the corresponding figure is 500 ms. The QT interval represents the time between the onset of ventricular depolarization and…

…with NSTE ACS should be admitted for management of acute ischaemia. Those with possible ACS, a non diagnostic ECG, and normal initial troponin may be…

…most clinicians who encounter patients with pacemakers only have access to conventional surface ECGs. Being able to assess pacemaker function and perform troubleshooting should be…

…generate vibrations in the surrounding air and these vibrations propagate in the form of a sound wave. If the sound waves encounter a new medium…

…refractory. In this case ( Figure 1 ) it encounters a refractory right bundle branch and therefore the impulse is conducted with right bundle branch block morphology…

…is angled alongside the P wave vector, and the exploring electrode is located in front of the P wave vector ( Figure 2, right hand side)…