…prevent the emergence of risk factors. It includes maintenance of favourable blood pressure, body mass index, cholesterol and glucose levels, together with a low salt…

…insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia, elevated blood pressure and impaired glucose regulation. Diagnosis is based on the coexistence of defined clinical and laboratory components; the diagnostic criteria…

…observational studies have sometimes suggested that lower blood pressure may be harmful in significantly frail patients, especially when baseline blood pressure is not markedly elevated…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Secondary hypertension is elevated blood pressure attributable to a specific, identifiable underlying cause. It should be considered in every…

…is elevated but below the conventional hypertension threshold. The traditional diagnostic threshold of 140/90 mmHg derives from epidemiological observations associating pressures above this level…

…failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome in which the heart cannot deliver blood at a rate appropriate to tissue requirements unless filling pressures are elevated…

…Hypertensive emergency is defined as significantly elevated blood pressure (systolic pressure ≥180 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure ≥120 mmHg) with concurrent signs of acute organ…

…Hypertensive emergency is defined as significantly elevated blood pressure (systolic pressure ≥180 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure ≥120 mmHg) with concurrent signs of acute organ…

…compartments. Heart failure is defined physiologically by the inability of the heart to provide blood flow appropriate to tissue requirements unless filling pressures are elevated…

…cardiovascular societies, defines HF as a clinical syndrome corroborated by elevated natriuretic peptide levels and/or objective evidence of pulmonary or systemic congestion [3] . Within…

…In adults with elevated blood pressure, nonpharmacological management should be actively implemented. Adults with blood pressure ≥140/90 mmHg should receive both lifestyle and antihypertensive…

…In clinical practice, the condition is identified primarily through persistently elevated blood pressure despite multidrug treatment rather than through specific symptoms. The clinical importance lies…

…In acute PE, obstruction of pulmonary blood flow increases RV pressure load and may impair RV filling and forward output. The resulting syndrome may progress…

…an important consideration in older populations. Risk prediction is particularly relevant in adults with elevated blood pressure (BP), in whom absolute cardiovascular risk varies considerably…

…is a more reliable indicator of blood flow to vital organs than systolic blood pressure alone. Predictive Value : Elevated MAP has been associated with an…

…helps explain the neurological manifestations of preeclampsia and the potential for stroke even at blood pressure levels that might otherwise be considered only moderately elevated…

…mastering the nuances of anticoagulation requires an intimate understanding of the underlying pathophysiology, which is classically framed by Virchow’s triad: blood stasis, endothelial dysfunction…

…levels . Elevated lactate is an indicator of tissue hypoperfusion and can guide resuscitative efforts. If the patient presents with hypotension or has a lactate level…

…hemorrhage in the context of cardiac arrest cases. Highly echogenic fluid indicates that the blood has coagulated, making it very challenging to drain using pericardiocentesis…

…liter of blood (typically <5 ng/L). This is explained by the low turnover of cardiac muscle cells ( Parmacek et al ). Cardiac troponin levels rise…

…circulation. It is possible to detect elevated levels of myocardial proteins in blood within 2 to 3 hours after the onset of myocardial infarction. Cardiac…

…failure, and end stage renal disease, may produce elevated troponin concentrations. The probability of MI increases continuously as the absolute hs cTn concentration rises. Early…

…CMD: resting vascular tone is generally normal, but the increase in coronary blood flow during stress is inadequate. Structural CMD: resting vascular tone is increased…

…central venous, right atrial, and right ventricular end diastolic pressures—are elevated, whereas left ventricular filling pressure is usually normal or only modestly increased. Right…

…spontaneous thrombus lysis, and the quality of tissue level perfusion after epicardial flow is restored. Microvascular obstruction may persist despite successful PCI because of endothelial…

…populations, including Japanese, Chinese and Malay patients, may have higher statin blood levels; lower starting doses are therefore appropriate. Drug interactions are particularly important. Inhibition…

…after blood analyses confirm elevated levels of myocardial proteins. These proteins are cardiac troponins (henceforth referred to only as troponins). When elevated troponin levels are…

…is greater for the posteromedial papillary muscle, which only receives blood supply from one coronary artery (Coronary arteries). Chronic myocardial ischemia may also lead to…

…shock is common in both penetrating and blunt force trauma. Loss of blood volume renders chest compressions futile. Hypoxia : Hypoxia is common in traumatic cardiac…

…improve cardiovascular outcomes, although opportunistic assessment during clinical encounters improves detection of risk factors such as elevated blood pressure and lipid abnormalities. CAC should therefore…

…renal disease are bidirectionally related: hypertension accelerates CKD progression, while impaired renal function further increases blood pressure. Non traditional cardiovascular mechanisms include: Uraemia associated inflammation…

…provide blood flow commensurate with the body’s requirements or can do so only at the cost of elevated filling pressures. Congestion and elevated filling…

…PSAX (parasternal short axis view). Individuals with bicuspid aortic valves have substantially elevated risk of developing aortic stenosis. The prevalence of bicuspid aortic valves is…

…valve area. The equation claims that the volume of blood flowing through the RVOT is equal to the volume flowing through the pulmonary artery. SV…

…agents to elevate myocardial oxygen demand (or simulate increased demand using vasodilatory agents). A radiotracer is administered at peak stress to capture blood flow distribution…

…and pathophysiology Familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) is an inherited disorder characterized by persistently elevated plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) from early life and a…

…of ≥50%, accompanied by objective evidence of structural and/or functional cardiac abnormalities and/or elevated natriuretic peptides (NPs) [1] [2] . The evolution of HF…

…contingent upon the specific mutation present. For patients at elevated risk—such as those with a history of cardiac arrest, recurrent syncope despite beta blocker…

…contingent upon the specific mutation present. For patients at elevated risk—such as those with a history of cardiac arrest, recurrent syncope despite beta blocker…

…in South Asians, who have substantially elevated risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes at BMI levels of 23 kg/m 2 or higher. Body surface…

…risk. Left Atrial Diameter (LA) : Enlargement of the left atrium is a marker of elevated left ventricular filling pressures and is linked to adverse outcomes…

…a normal or low pulse pressure, an elevated jugular venous pressure with a paradoxical rise on inspiration (Kussmaul sign), and a difficult to palpate apex…

…myocardial injury, defined by an elevated cardiac troponin (cTn) value with at least one value above the 99th percentile upper reference limit (URL). The injury…

…systolic dysfunction. Levels may also rise with: Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction Valvular heart disease Pulmonary hypertension Ischaemic heart disease Atrial arrhythmias Pericardial disease, including constriction…

…90%. Levels vary among ethnic groups and generally remain relatively stable throughout life. Lp(a) is elevated in approximately one in five individuals. Pathophysiology Lp…

…In heavy smokers, cardiovascular risk falls within five years of stopping but may remain elevated thereafter. The overall health benefit is greater still when reductions…

…is a rise and/or fall in cTn values. An elevated cTn alone does not establish MI, because myocardial injury may occur without myocardial ischaemia…

…particularly obstructive pulmonary disease, the use of theophylline, and elevated catecholamine states. EAT typically has an abrupt onset, although a brief warm up phase lasting…

…shows localized ST segment elevations, T wave inversions and occasionally pathological Q waves. Troponin levels are often mildly elevated. Hence, takotsubo cardiomyopathy cannot be differentiated…

…nasogastric tube. Warnings and Precautions Increased risk of bleeding, especially in patients with known elevated bleeding risk. Discontinuation of Ticagrelor should be avoided. If a…

…to track more closely with apoB. Discordantly high apoB is especially associated with metabolic syndrome and mildly elevated triglycerides, even when LDL C is normal…

…an elevated cardiac troponin concentration and new ST segment depression in new onset AF should not automatically be labelled type 2 myocardial infarction without further…

…among patients with elevated troponin I was 51.2%, as compared with 4.5% among patients without evidence of myocardial injury (normal troponin I levels)…

…troponin elevation is not specific for myocardial infarction. Other conditions may produce cardiomyocyte injury and elevated troponin, so biomarker interpretation must be integrated with the…

…LDL C or non HDL C, particularly in patients with metabolic syndrome or elevated triglycerides despite normal or low LDL C. HDL cholesterol (HDL C…

…V6), while ST segments are elevated and T waves are typically upright in leads with predominantly negative QRS complexes (such as V1 and V2) [7]…

…evidence of ischaemia; an elevated and dynamically changing troponin concentration without evidence of ischaemia should instead be classified as acute myocardial injury. Mechanisms of troponin…

…is depressed below the level of the PR segment. ST segment elevation implies that the ST segment is elevated above the level of the PR…

…When preprocedural troponin is elevated but stable or falling, the postprocedural level must demonstrate both the required absolute threshold and a rise of more than…

…characteristic clinical syndrome consists of: Malaise Fever Pericardial or chest discomfort Leukocytosis Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate Pericardial effusion Pericardial pain is often sharp and pleuritic…