…risk factor [2] . This change reflects robust evidence that female sex alone, in the absence of other comorbidities, does not significantly increase stroke risk. Conversely…

…complete discontinuation of tobacco smoking, with avoidance of second hand smoke and, where possible, other inhaled nicotine products. In cardiovascular medicine, the objective is not…

…formidable challenge in contemporary cardiovascular medicine. As a primary driver of sudden cardiac death (SCD) and a major cause of morbidity in patients with structural…

…mortality. Cardiovascular conditions associated with obesity include hypertension, dyslipidaemia, coronary artery disease (CAD), atherosclerosis, heart failure (HF), atrial fibrillation and cardiovascular events. In clinical practice…

…increasing coronary blood flow. In circumstances with non shockable rhythm or with prolonged periods of VF (fine VF resistant to defibrillations), the purpose of CPR…

…must be minimized, most pacemakers use lead tips with high resistance (400 to 1200 Ω). The higher the resistance in the lead tip, the smaller…

…Smooth muscle cells (SMCs) migrate from the tunica media into the intima, driven by platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) and other cytokines. Within the intima…

…main principle behind artificial pacemakers; i.e applying an external electrical current that depolarizes cells in contact with the lead tip, and thus generate an…

…bidirectional. AF with a rapid ventricular response may precipitate or aggravate haemodynamic decompensation, whereas acute illness and increased sympathetic drive may promote AF. In DHF…

…for ventricular rate control in atrial fibrillation, particularly when other therapeutic options cannot be pursued. Patients receiving digoxin may present with symptoms of digitalis toxicity…

…with increased risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and stent thrombosis. Premature DAPT interruption is described as the strongest predictor of stent thrombosis in…

…surface and have substantially reduced this process compared with BMS. Neoatherosclerosis Neoatherosclerosis is a later pathological process in which lipid laden foamy macrophages accumulate within…

…is greater in patients with diabetes mellitus and increases with age. STEMI may present as sudden onset breathlessness. Other less common presentations, with or without…

…relief of triggers, and reduction of sympathetic drive [4]. Rhythm Stabilization In addition to defibrillation , several pharmacological and interventional alternatives exist to stabilize the cardiac…

…wall with accumulation of blood within the false lumen, which compresses the true lumen to varying degrees; this non atherosclerotic condition may occur especially in…

…Unlike HFrEF, where epicardial ischemic heart disease and myocardial infarction are primary drivers, HFpEF is more frequently associated with coronary microvascular dysfunction, though epicardial coronary…

…heart failure with mid range ejection fraction) are relatively new entities and there are currently no effective treatments that modify the natural course in these…

…heart failure with mid range ejection fraction) are relatively new entities and there are currently no effective treatments that modify the natural course in these…

…break through the intimal layer, provoking localized thrombosis. This is predominantly observed in older patients with heavily calcified, tortuous vessels [2] . Regardless of the initiating…

…in the other nostril, in the ears and in the mouth. Nose 1. Ask the patient to blow the nose gently. Clear mucus with suction…

…Rare biallelic variants in LDLRAP1, which impair LDL receptor endocytosis and produce an FH like phenotype. Individuals with a single pathogenic variant have heterozygous FH…

…with a rise in left atrial and pulmonary pressures that contributes to exertional breathlessness and reduced exercise capacity. Multiorgan and comorbidity driven disease HFpEF is…

…starting with glucagon like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP 1 RAs) and evolving into multi receptor agonists, has unleashed a new paradigm in cardiometabolic medicine…

…shifting demographic profile in incident HFrEF. Historically dominated by acute myocardial infarction (MI) survivors, the contemporary risk factor profile is increasingly driven by the global…

…ROSC) : Return of mechanical cardiac function resulting in circulation with pulse. Coronary perfusion pressure (CPP) : The pressure that drives blood flow through the coronary arteries…