…coronary disorders. The investigation should be undertaken when its diagnostic or therapeutic consequences are likely to outweigh procedural risks. This balance forms part of shared…

…Alcoholic hallucinosis, often visual, auditory or tactile hallucinations with a relatively clear level of consciousness and preserved orientation 12 to 48 hours Withdrawal seizures, usually…

…Neuroglycopenic symptoms An inadequate supply of glucose to the brain can cause: difficulty concentrating irritability or abnormal behaviour slurred speech visual disturbance confusion focal neurological…

…fracture of the leads. External causes are less common and include electrolyte disorders, metabolic disorders, hypoxemia, antiarrhythmic drugs, or electromagnetic disturbance caused by other machines…

…Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Myocardial infarction (MI) is a clinical diagnosis that integrates myocardial injury, evidence of acute myocardial ischaemia, electrocardiographic findings…

…Skipping a step is a common reason why mixed acid base disorders are missed. The blood gas describes the physiology at the moment of sampling…

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…cardiac tamponade. The classical signs of cardiac tamponade are hypotension, muffled heart sounds and jugular venous distention. Other frequent symptoms are pulsus paradoxus, pericardial friction…

…acetylsalicylic acid at the first sign of skin rash, mucosal lesions, or hypersensitivity. Interactions Pharmacodynamic interactions Anticoagulants, thrombolytics, or other platelet aggregation inhibitors: Salicylates inhibit…

…HMOD) Probable or definite familial hypercholesterolaemia Other markedly abnormal single risk factors or genetic, rare lipid, or BP disorders Pregnancy Established ASCVD includes previous acute…

…PA), also termed primary hyperaldosteronism or Conn syndrome, comprises disorders in which aldosterone secretion is inappropriately increased, relatively autonomous from angiotensin II and plasma potassium…

…impairment to develop, leaving persistent hypertension despite correction of the initiating disorder. Earlier diagnosis is associated with a greater likelihood of cure. When to investigate…

…with later cardiovascular risk include: Premature menopause Premature ovarian insufficiency Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy Preeclampsia Preterm delivery Gestational diabetes Small for gestational age delivery Placental…

…proportion of painless or silent STEMIs is greater in patients with diabetes mellitus and increases with age. STEMI may present as sudden onset breathlessness. Other…

…The emergency evaluation of non traumatic chest discomfort is structured around three principal diagnostic categories: Myocardial ischaemia , particularly acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Other cardiopulmonary causes…

…cardiac arrest. Most of these have atherosclerotic heart disease (coronary artery disease) as the underlying cause. Other common causes are cardiomyopathy (hypertrophic or dilated), arrhythmogenic…

…also present in individuals without identifiable cardiac disease. Contributing factors include pulmonary disorders, particularly obstructive pulmonary disease, the use of theophylline, and elevated catecholamine states…

…favorable prognosis, as compared with other forms of ventricular tachycardia. Mechanisms of ventricular tachycardia Ventricular tachycardia (VT) may emerge due to increased/abnormal automaticity, re…

…are not apparent on conventional angiography. Coronary vasomotor disorders may involve epicardial spasm or abnormalities of the coronary microcirculation. Microvascular angina reflects myocardial ischaemia caused…

…in the myocardium. The electrical potential difference exists between ischemic and normal myocardium and it results in displacement of the ST segment. The ST segment…

…after reperfusion in an occluded coronary artery. It also occurs as side effect of drugs, hypoxia, myocarditis and electrolyte disorders. Because the rate (60–100…

…S Ca 2+ 2.6 mmol/L In approximately 90% of cases, hypercalcemia is attributed to primary hyperparathyroidism or neoplastic etiologies. Other causes include immobilization…

…of Brugada syndrome are fairly specific to the disorder, provided that the clinical characteristics are in line with the disorder. There are however other disorders…

…is often indicative of a noncardiac source [4]. 3. Pneumonia with Pleurisy Pain Characteristics: Pleuritic pain is a common presentation [2]. 4. Other Systemic/Local…

…a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather than an isolated disorder of the lower limbs. Patients frequently have concomitant coronary, cerebrovascular or other peripheral arterial…

…on QT prolongation or risk of torsade de pointes in PubMed. Drug with neuroleptic and anti histamine properties. Sleep disorder Aceprometazine is often used in…

…vasoconstriction, adhesion of circulating cells, inflammatory cell entry into the intima, and thrombus formation. Atherosclerosis is therefore not simply a disorder of lipid storage. Its…

…of dissection and impaired distal flow. These alternative causes must be distinguished from isolated no reflow because their treatment may require immediate stenting or other…

…an inherited disorder characterized by persistently elevated plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) from early life and a consequent excess risk of premature atherosclerotic…

…Use of cannabis, electronic cigarettes or other inhaled products. Readiness to attempt cessation. Depression, schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, HIV infection or other circumstances that may affect…

…of serious arrhythmias. This is possible because there is a correlation between the severity of electrolyte imbalance and the visible ECG changes. Specific electrolyte disorders…

…rise can cause osmotic demyelination syndrome [1,2]. Hyponatraemia is primarily a disorder of water balance. The plasma sodium reflects the ratio between the body…

…follow. Consider people with the genetic disorder familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), which is caused by genetic mutations affecting the elimination of LDL cholesterol from the blood…

…antenatal hypertensive disorders, but it may also arise de novo after delivery. New onset postpartum preeclampsia is increasingly recognized as a significant cause of maternal…

…during the examination. Work related musculoskeletal disorders are a common cause of pain and sickness absence for ultrasound practitioners (Harrison et al). When performing emergency…

…s disease), degeneration associated with connective tissue disorders (Marfan syndrome, Ehlers Danlos syndrome), osteogenesis imperfecta typically causes prolapse of P2 (Figure 1). Myocardial ischemia affecting…

…conduction disorders frequently present with presyncope or syncope. Diagnosing transient or paroxysmal AV block in these individuals can be challenging. A high suspicion of intermittent…

…assessed. QT prolongation may be congenital (due to genetic mutations) or acquired (secondary to medications, electrolyte disorders). QT duration is inversely related to heart rate…

…predominant cause, accounting for approximately 60% of HFrEF cases in Western populations [14] . Non ischemic etiologies encompass a highly heterogeneous group of disorders. Idiopathic dilated…

…and miscellaneous conditions A novel potentially life threatening cardiac arrhythmia syndrome identified with ECG The ECG may be used to diagnose several cardiac genetic disorders…

…antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). Collectively, these disorders are associated with excess cardiovascular disease (CVD), although the cardiovascular phenotype varies substantially between diseases. Cardiovascular involvement extends beyond…

…respiratory disorders, notably obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) and obesity hypoventilation syndrome, which further increase cardiovascular burden. Obesity may be a particularly important cause of HF…

…dissection (SCAD) is an acute coronary disorder caused by separation within the coronary arterial wall, usually through formation of an intramural haematoma that compresses the…

…Asian ancestry Previous muscle disease or a personal or family history of muscle disorders Acute infection Renal or hepatic impairment Hypothyroidism Vitamin D deficiency Concomitant…

…in this pattern. Endothelial dysfunction may contribute to both microvascular and epicardial vasomotor disorders. Endothelial activation can promote the release of adhesion molecules, inflammatory cytokines…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology Cardiology Definition and Pathophysiology Vasovagal syncope represents the most common form of neurally mediated syncope (NMS), a disorder of autonomic reflexes. It…

Cardiology Respiratory medicine Definition and Pathophysiology Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a heterogeneous pathophysiological disorder characterized primarily by elevation of pulmonary arterial pressure. It may arise…

…Cardiac Amyloidosis Definition and Pathophysiology Cardiac amyloidosis (CA) is a protein misfolding disorder characterized by the extracellular deposition of misfolded fibrillar proteins in the myocardium…

Echocardiography Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM): from pathophysiology to echocardiography Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a genetic disorder that causes left ventricular hypertrophy under normal loading conditions. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy…

…ECG examples of each condition are presented below. The ECG in Brugada syndrome Brugada syndrome is a rare channelopathy (an electrical disorder caused by mutations…

…on left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) is defined by the combination of symptoms, with or without physical signs…