…hypokalaemia. Endocrine disorders account for many secondary forms. Primary hyperaldosteronism is identified as the most frequent cause, comprising approximately 20–25% of secondary hypertension cases…

…laboratory abnormalities indicate end organ injury. Eclampsia is the occurrence of new onset seizures or coma in a pregnant woman with preeclampsia. HELLP syndrome—haemolysis…

…with the electronics in the pulse generator or dislodgement or fracture of the leads. External causes are less common and include electrolyte disorders, metabolic disorders…

…4b and 4c fulfil the criteria for type 1 MI because they represent coronary atherothrombotic events in the setting of a stent thrombosis or restenosis…

…pO₂, A–a gradient or PaO₂/FiO₂ Arterial blood gas COHb or MetHb Arterial or venous sample with co oximetry Follow up of pH in…

…surface between the transducer and the skin. Generous use of gel is recommended. In addition to the gel, it is important to apply some pressure…

…is an antiandrogen used in the treatment of prostate cancer. PubMed search Abiraterone ) DrugBank search Abiraterone Aceprometazine None Classified as QT prolonging drug in DrugBank…

…typically results in thickening of the leaflets and may coexist with mitral stenosis. Idiopathic degeneration (Barlow's disease), degeneration associated with connective tissue disorders (Marfan…

…by numerous local and systemic disorders. Accumulation of fluid in the pericardial space may lead to increased intrapericardial pressure, which in turn affects ventricular relaxation…

…In apparently healthy individuals, SCORE2 and SCORE2 OP estimates can be used to classify 10 year risk as follows: Risk category 10 year risk of…

…conduction disorders frequently present with presyncope or syncope. Diagnosing transient or paroxysmal AV block in these individuals can be challenging. A high suspicion of intermittent…

…PA), also termed primary hyperaldosteronism or Conn syndrome, comprises disorders in which aldosterone secretion is inappropriately increased, relatively autonomous from angiotensin II and plasma potassium…

…with later cardiovascular risk include: Premature menopause Premature ovarian insufficiency Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy Preeclampsia Preterm delivery Gestational diabetes Small for gestational age delivery Placental…

…without acute elevations in cardiac troponin concentrations. Based on the presenting electrocardiogram (ECG) and the presence of troponin elevation, ACS are classified into unstable angina…

…Prophylaxis against recurrence of cerebrovascular disease: 75–80 mg tablet once daily. Warnings and precautions Use Aspirin with caution in the following cases: Concurrent anticoagulant…

…selected congenital heart diseases, pulmonary arterial hypertension and thromboembolic disorders. Most recognised heritable cardiovascular conditions demonstrate autosomal dominant transmission, in which an affected heterozygous individual…

…the high risk of ventricular arrhythmias is due to the vulnerability caused by marked local differences in repolarization. This article is part of the comprehensive…

…highly heterogeneous group of disorders. Idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is frequently diagnosed when ischemic, valvular, and hypertensive causes are excluded. However, advances in molecular diagnostics…

…from sudden cardiac death. Atrial fibrillation and ventricular arrhythmias were observed in the fifth decade of life in several family members. Imaging studies did not…

…Collectively, these disorders are associated with excess cardiovascular disease (CVD), although the cardiovascular phenotype varies substantially between diseases. Cardiovascular involvement extends beyond conventional atherosclerotic coronary…

…respiratory disorders, notably obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) and obesity hypoventilation syndrome, which further increase cardiovascular burden. Obesity may be a particularly important cause of HF…

…disorder caused by separation within the coronary arterial wall, usually through formation of an intramural haematoma that compresses the true lumen. The resulting reduction in…

…secondary. Primary and secondary ST T changes Primary ST T changes are caused by abnormal repolarization . This is seen in ischemia, electrolyte disorders (calcium, potassium)…

…frequently, it may also present in individuals without identifiable cardiac disease. Contributing factors include pulmonary disorders, particularly obstructive pulmonary disease, the use of theophylline, and…

…Electrolyte disorders, acidosis, hypoxemia and ischemia all aggravate the risk of developing ventricular fibrillation, in any situation. ECG features of ventricular fibrillation The ECG shows…

…effect of drugs, hypoxia, myocarditis and electrolyte disorders. Because the rate (60–100 beats per minute) is on a par with the rate in sinus…

…simultaneously as the cause of the arrhythmia already affects cellular function. This results in electrical instability which explains why ventricular tachycardia may progress to ventricular…

…Asian ancestry Previous muscle disease or a personal or family history of muscle disorders Acute infection Renal or hepatic impairment Hypothyroidism Vitamin D deficiency Concomitant…

…6% of patients discharged with presumed non ischaemic chest pain were subsequently found to have had an infarction. Pathophysiological Considerations The central pathophysiological concern in…

…Assessing the haemodynamic significance of lesions whose angiographic severity is uncertain. Supporting decisions regarding revascularization and, in selected patients, identifying microvascular or vasomotor coronary disorders…

…more frequent in this pattern. Endothelial dysfunction may contribute to both microvascular and epicardial vasomotor disorders. Endothelial activation can promote the release of adhesion molecules…

…are not apparent on conventional angiography. Coronary vasomotor disorders may involve epicardial spasm or abnormalities of the coronary microcirculation. Microvascular angina reflects myocardial ischaemia caused…

…lithium, thiazide administration, and over supplementation of calcium and vitamin D. ECG in hypercalcemia Typical ECG changes: Shortened QT interval. Attenuated T wave amplitude. Prolonged…

…Diminished T wave amplitude Osborn like waves. ST segment elevation in leads V1–V2. All degrees of AV block. Sinus node dysfunction and tach brady…

…those in Brugada syndrome. This disorder is easy to diagnose with a simple blood test and the ST segment elevations resolve after normalization of potassium…

…Malignancy: A history suggesting an autoimmune disorder or known malignancy may suggest specific, nonidiopathic etiologies [2]. Summary of Pain Characteristics The following table synthesizes the…

…PAD) is a clinical disorder caused by stenosis or occlusion of the aorta or arteries supplying the limbs. In adults over 40 years of age…

…branch block. Cardiac monitoring is indicated for patients with a high pretest probability of arrhythmia causing syncope. In hospital monitoring is reserved for those wit

Cardiology Respiratory medicine Definition and Pathophysiology Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a heterogeneous pathophysiological disorder characterized primarily by elevation of pulmonary arterial pressure. It may arise…

…over extensor tendons, are characteristic clinical manifestations of untreated FH and may develop when the disorder is not recognized early in life. Corneal arcus and…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

…therefore a disorder of coronary microvascular perfusion rather than persistent obstruction of the treated epicardial segment. The phenomenon occurs in approximately 2%–3% of PCI…

…use disorder and planned follow up , not merely detoxification. Benzodiazepines reduce the severity of withdrawal and the risk of seizures and delirium [1,2]. In…

…Cardiac Amyloidosis Definition and Pathophysiology Cardiac amyloidosis (CA) is a protein misfolding disorder characterized by the extracellular deposition of misfolded fibrillar proteins in the myocardium…

…Epidemiological aspects of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is equally common among men and women. The prevalence in a Western population is approximately 0.2…

…falls within five years of stopping but may remain elevated thereafter. The overall health benefit is greater still when reductions in non cardiovascular morbidity and…

…Thresholds The thresholds below are used above all in diabetes. The severity of the symptoms and the patient's need for help matter more than…

…a disorder of water balance. The plasma sodium reflects the ratio between the body's exchangeable sodium and potassium and the total body water. In…

…examples of each condition are presented below. The ECG in Brugada syndrome Brugada syndrome is a rare channelopathy (an electrical disorder caused by mutations in…

…follow. Consider people with the genetic disorder familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), which is caused by genetic mutations affecting the elimination of LDL cholesterol from the blood…

…follow up and appropriate therapy. In this setting, the risk of sudden death and end stage heart failure is high, and assessment for advanced therapies…