…part via NMDA receptors. With prolonged alcohol exposure the nervous system adapts through reduced GABA mediated inhibition and increased glutamatergic activity. When the alcohol level…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology Cardiology Definition and Pathophysiology Vasovagal syncope represents the most common form of neurally mediated syncope (NMS), a disorder of autonomic reflexes. It…

…does not normally need investigation on the basis of an isolated, asymptomatic low sensor reading alone. Symptoms Autonomic symptoms Early warning symptoms are due to…

…antenatal hypertensive disorders, but it may also arise de novo after delivery. New onset postpartum preeclampsia is increasingly recognized as a significant cause of maternal…

…include electrolyte disorders, metabolic disorders, hypoxemia, antiarrhythmic drugs, or electromagnetic disturbance caused by other machines/devices. Below follows ECG tracings demonstrating each type of failure…

…Non ischaemic myocardial injury may accompany numerous cardiac and systemic disorders, including: Cardiac causes Systemic causes Heart failure Sepsis Myocarditis Chronic kidney disease Cardiomyopathy Stroke…

…Skipping a step is a common reason why mixed acid base disorders are missed. The blood gas describes the physiology at the moment of sampling…

…during the examination. Work related musculoskeletal disorders are a common cause of pain and sickness absence for ultrasound practitioners (Harrison et al). When performing emergency…

…on QT prolongation or risk of torsade de pointes in PubMed. Drug with neuroleptic and anti histamine properties. Sleep disorder Aceprometazine is often used in…

…s disease), degeneration associated with connective tissue disorders (Marfan syndrome, Ehlers Danlos syndrome), osteogenesis imperfecta typically causes prolapse of P2 (Figure 1). Myocardial ischemia affecting…

…the presence of an abnormal amount of fluid in the pericardial space. It can be caused by numerous local and systemic disorders. Accumulation of fluid…

Cardiology Definition and purpose Cardiovascular risk assessment estimates an individual’s probability of experiencing cardiovascular disease (CVD) over a defined period. SCORE2 and SCORE2 Older…

…Pharmacology & dosing Definition and Pathophysiology Bradycardia and conduction disorders arise from dysfunction within the sinus node, the atrioventricular node (AVN), or the His Purkinje system…

…PA), also termed primary hyperaldosteronism or Conn syndrome, comprises disorders in which aldosterone secretion is inappropriately increased, relatively autonomous from angiotensin II and plasma potassium…

…with later cardiovascular risk include: Premature menopause Premature ovarian insufficiency Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy Preeclampsia Preterm delivery Gestational diabetes Small for gestational age delivery Placental…

…mistaken impression of indigestion. STEMI pain can simulate pain from acute pericarditis, pulmonary embolism, acute aortic dissection, costochondritis, and gastrointestinal disorders. Radiation of discomfort to…

…Severe heart failure. Doses 100 mg/day during the third trimester of pregnancy. Dosage Acute myocardial infarction: Initial loading dose: 300–500 mg as soon…

…and scope Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to…

…assessed. QT prolongation may be congenital (due to genetic mutations) or acquired (secondary to medications, electrolyte disorders). QT duration is inversely related to heart rate…

…impairment to develop, leaving persistent hypertension despite correction of the initiating disorder. Earlier diagnosis is associated with a greater likelihood of cure. When to investigate…

…cardiovascular societies, defines HF as a clinical syndrome corroborated by elevated natriuretic peptide levels and/or objective evidence of pulmonary or systemic congestion [3] . Within…

…and miscellaneous conditions A novel potentially life threatening cardiac arrhythmia syndrome identified with ECG The ECG may be used to diagnose several cardiac genetic disorders…

…higher cardiovascular risk than the general population. This excess risk has been documented across a broad range of conditions, including gout, vasculitis, systemic sclerosis, myositis…

…both as an independent cardiovascular risk factor and as a driver of hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidaemia and systemic inflammation. It is also associated with respiratory disorders…

…dissection (SCAD) is an acute coronary disorder caused by separation within the coronary arterial wall, usually through formation of an intramural haematoma that compresses the…

…in the myocardium. The electrical potential difference exists between ischemic and normal myocardium and it results in displacement of the ST segment. The ST segment…

…also present in individuals without identifiable cardiac disease. Contributing factors include pulmonary disorders, particularly obstructive pulmonary disease, the use of theophylline, and elevated catecholamine states…

…Electrolyte disorders, acidosis, hypoxemia and ischemia all aggravate the risk of developing ventricular fibrillation, in any situation. ECG features of ventricular fibrillation The ECG shows…

…seconds). The QRS complex is wide simply because the ectopic impulses that cause these rhythms spread partially or entirely outside of the ventricular conduction system…

…electrolyte disorders , congenital heart disease and catecholamine induced ventricular tachycardia . The vast majority of patients with ventricular tachycardia either have coronary artery disease (ischemic heart…

…Asian ancestry Previous muscle disease or a personal or family history of muscle disorders Acute infection Renal or hepatic impairment Hypothyroidism Vitamin D deficiency Concomitant…

…be considered anginal equivalents. The emergency evaluation of non traumatic chest discomfort is structured around three principal diagnostic categories: Myocardial ischaemia , particularly acute coronary syndrome…

…coronary disorders. The investigation should be undertaken when its diagnostic or therapeutic consequences are likely to outweigh procedural risks. This balance forms part of shared…

…in this pattern. Endothelial dysfunction may contribute to both microvascular and epicardial vasomotor disorders. Endothelial activation can promote the release of adhesion molecules, inflammatory cytokines…

…are not apparent on conventional angiography. Coronary vasomotor disorders may involve epicardial spasm or abnormalities of the coronary microcirculation. Microvascular angina reflects myocardial ischaemia caused…

…managed as chronic hyponatremia. Degree of hyponatremia P/S Na + Common effects Mild 130 125 mmol/l Cognitive disorders, vertigo, balance disorder. Moderate 115 125…

…of serious arrhythmias. This is possible because there is a correlation between the severity of electrolyte imbalance and the visible ECG changes. Specific electrolyte disorders…

…Brugada syndrome. This disorder is easy to diagnose with a simple blood test and the ST segment elevations resolve after normalization of potassium levels. Brugada…

…often indicative of a noncardiac source [4]. 3. Pneumonia with Pleurisy Pain Characteristics: Pleuritic pain is a common presentation [2]. 4. Other Systemic/Local Causes…

…adventitial disease and trauma. Atherosclerotic PAD is a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather than an isolated disorder of the lower limbs. Patients frequently have…

Cardiology Respiratory medicine Definition and Pathophysiology Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a heterogeneous pathophysiological disorder characterized primarily by elevation of pulmonary arterial pressure. It may arise…

…an inherited disorder characterized by persistently elevated plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) from early life and a consequent excess risk of premature atherosclerotic…

…focal arterial lesions. Although epicardial coronary arteries are a major site of disease, atherosclerosis is systemic and may affect multiple arterial territories. The arterial wall…

…the absence of a flow limiting epicardial coronary stenosis. It is therefore a disorder of coronary microvascular perfusion rather than persistent obstruction of the treated…

…and impaired ventricular relaxation [10]. There is also an increased risk of intracardiac thrombus and stroke or systemic embolization, even in patients in sinus rhythm…

…of a disproportionate response to increased ventricular loading. The presence of systemic hypertension or aortic stenosis does not rule out hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Epidemiological aspects of…

…to second hand smoke. Use of cannabis, electronic cigarettes or other inhaled products. Readiness to attempt cessation. Depression, schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, HIV infection or other…

…rise can cause osmotic demyelination syndrome [1,2]. Hyponatraemia is primarily a disorder of water balance. The plasma sodium reflects the ratio between the body…

…ECG examples of each condition are presented below. The ECG in Brugada syndrome Brugada syndrome is a rare channelopathy (an electrical disorder caused by mutations…

…follow. Consider people with the genetic disorder familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), which is caused by genetic mutations affecting the elimination of LDL cholesterol from the blood…

…on left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) is defined by the combination of symptoms, with or without physical signs…