Arrhythmias and arrhythmology Cardiology Definition and Pathophysiology Vasovagal syncope represents the most common form of neurally mediated syncope (NMS), a disorder of autonomic reflexes. It…

…with the electronics in the pulse generator or dislodgement or fracture of the leads. External causes are less common and include electrolyte disorders, metabolic disorders…

…Malignancy: A history suggesting an autoimmune disorder or known malignancy may suggest specific, nonidiopathic etiologies [2]. Summary of Pain Characteristics The following table synthesizes the…

…also cause hyperkalemia. ECG in mild hyperkalemia (potassium 6,0 mmol/L) The earliest sign of hyperkalemia is the pointed T waves. This is most…

…adventitial disease and trauma. Atherosclerotic PAD is a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather than an isolated disorder of the lower limbs. Patients frequently have…

…on QT prolongation or risk of torsade de pointes in PubMed. Drug with neuroleptic and anti histamine properties. Sleep disorder Aceprometazine is often used in…

Cardiology Respiratory medicine Definition and Pathophysiology Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a heterogeneous pathophysiological disorder characterized primarily by elevation of pulmonary arterial pressure. It may arise…

…over extensor tendons, are characteristic clinical manifestations of untreated FH and may develop when the disorder is not recognized early in life. Corneal arcus and…

…Atherosclerotic lesions commonly arise at sites of disturbed flow, including branch points in the epicardial coronary arteries. Early lesions may undergo positive or compensatory remodelling…

…the absence of a flow limiting epicardial coronary stenosis. It is therefore a disorder of coronary microvascular perfusion rather than persistent obstruction of the treated…

…strong suspicion of another or an additional cause [1]. Delirium tremens most often begins after one to three days but can start earlier in patients…

…Cardiac Amyloidosis Definition and Pathophysiology Cardiac amyloidosis (CA) is a protein misfolding disorder characterized by the extracellular deposition of misfolded fibrillar proteins in the myocardium…

…dissection (SCAD) is an acute coronary disorder caused by separation within the coronary arterial wall, usually through formation of an intramural haematoma that compresses the…

Echocardiography Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM): from pathophysiology to echocardiography Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a genetic disorder that causes left ventricular hypertrophy under normal loading conditions. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy…

…and thromboembolic disorders. Most recognised heritable cardiovascular conditions demonstrate autosomal dominant transmission, in which an affected heterozygous individual has a 50% risk of transmitting the…

…to second hand smoke. Use of cannabis, electronic cigarettes or other inhaled products. Readiness to attempt cessation. Depression, schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, HIV infection or other…

…Skipping a step is a common reason why mixed acid base disorders are missed. The blood gas describes the physiology at the moment of sampling…

…not normally need investigation on the basis of an isolated, asymptomatic low sensor reading alone. Symptoms Autonomic symptoms Early warning symptoms are due to sympathetic…

…impairment to develop, leaving persistent hypertension despite correction of the initiating disorder. Earlier diagnosis is associated with a greater likelihood of cure. When to investigate…

…rise can cause osmotic demyelination syndrome [1,2]. Hyponatraemia is primarily a disorder of water balance. The plasma sodium reflects the ratio between the body…

…Brugada syndrome. This disorder is easy to diagnose with a simple blood test and the ST segment elevations resolve after normalization of potassium levels. Brugada…

…managed as chronic hyponatremia. Degree of hyponatremia P/S Na + Common effects Mild 130 125 mmol/l Cognitive disorders, vertigo, balance disorder. Moderate 115 125…

…in the QRS complex and initiation of repolarization. However, no study to date has been able to demonstrate that the repolarization is actually early and…

…follow. Consider people with the genetic disorder familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), which is caused by genetic mutations affecting the elimination of LDL cholesterol from the blood…

…antenatal hypertensive disorders, but it may also arise de novo after delivery. New onset postpartum preeclampsia is increasingly recognized as a significant cause of maternal…

…earlier after coronary occlusion and progress over time. Experimentally, necrosis advances from the subendocardium towards the subepicardium over several hours. The extent and tempo of…

…the index marker. Image quality Various methods for optimizing image quality have been discussed earlier (refer to Optimization of the ultrasound image). Only the key…

…s disease), degeneration associated with connective tissue disorders (Marfan syndrome, Ehlers Danlos syndrome), osteogenesis imperfecta typically causes prolapse of P2 (Figure 1). Myocardial ischemia affecting…

…the presence of an abnormal amount of fluid in the pericardial space. It can be caused by numerous local and systemic disorders. Accumulation of fluid…

Cardiology Definition and purpose Cardiovascular risk assessment estimates an individual’s probability of experiencing cardiovascular disease (CVD) over a defined period. SCORE2 and SCORE2 Older…

…conduction disorders frequently present with presyncope or syncope. Diagnosing transient or paroxysmal AV block in these individuals can be challenging. A high suspicion of intermittent…

…sleep apnoea Hypertension with atrial fibrillation in the absence of an underlying structural cardiac explanation Early onset hypertension or cerebrovascular accident at a young age…

…with later cardiovascular risk include: Premature menopause Premature ovarian insufficiency Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy Preeclampsia Preterm delivery Gestational diabetes Small for gestational age delivery Placental…

…mistaken impression of indigestion. STEMI pain can simulate pain from acute pericarditis, pulmonary embolism, acute aortic dissection, costochondritis, and gastrointestinal disorders. Radiation of discomfort to…

…Severe heart failure. Doses 100 mg/day during the third trimester of pregnancy. Dosage Acute myocardial infarction: Initial loading dose: 300–500 mg as soon…

…assessed. QT prolongation may be congenital (due to genetic mutations) or acquired (secondary to medications, electrolyte disorders). QT duration is inversely related to heart rate…

…predominant cause, accounting for approximately 60% of HFrEF cases in Western populations [14] . Non ischemic etiologies encompass a highly heterogeneous group of disorders. Idiopathic dilated…

…with ECG The ECG may be used to diagnose several cardiac genetic disorders, such as Brugada syndrome, long QT syndrome [LQTS] and early repolarization syndrome…

…thickness, early plaque formation and coronary microvascular dysfunction. Women with RA were reported to have approximately twice the myocardial infarction risk of age matched controls…

…respiratory disorders, notably obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) and obesity hypoventilation syndrome, which further increase cardiovascular burden. Obesity may be a particularly important cause of HF…

…in the myocardium. The electrical potential difference exists between ischemic and normal myocardium and it results in displacement of the ST segment. The ST segment…

…also present in individuals without identifiable cardiac disease. Contributing factors include pulmonary disorders, particularly obstructive pulmonary disease, the use of theophylline, and elevated catecholamine states…

…early repolarization. Electrolyte disorders, acidosis, hypoxemia and ischemia all aggravate the risk of developing ventricular fibrillation, in any situation. ECG features of ventricular fibrillation The…

…after reperfusion in an occluded coronary artery. It also occurs as side effect of drugs, hypoxia, myocarditis and electrolyte disorders. Because the rate (60–100…

…electrolyte disorders , congenital heart disease and catecholamine induced ventricular tachycardia . The vast majority of patients with ventricular tachycardia either have coronary artery disease (ischemic heart…

…Asian ancestry Previous muscle disease or a personal or family history of muscle disorders Acute infection Renal or hepatic impairment Hypothyroidism Vitamin D deficiency Concomitant…

…be considered anginal equivalents. The emergency evaluation of non traumatic chest discomfort is structured around three principal diagnostic categories: Myocardial ischaemia , particularly acute coronary syndrome…

…coronary disorders. The investigation should be undertaken when its diagnostic or therapeutic consequences are likely to outweigh procedural risks. This balance forms part of shared…

…in this pattern. Endothelial dysfunction may contribute to both microvascular and epicardial vasomotor disorders. Endothelial activation can promote the release of adhesion molecules, inflammatory cytokines…

…are not apparent on conventional angiography. Coronary vasomotor disorders may involve epicardial spasm or abnormalities of the coronary microcirculation. Microvascular angina reflects myocardial ischaemia caused…

…defined by the combination of symptoms, with or without physical signs, and an LVEF below 40%. Signs may be absent in early disease or after…