…arrest is the mechanism of death for most diseases and conditions, including non cardiovascular conditions. A cardiac arrest can be expected or unexpected. The most…

…selection of diagnostic tests, and treatment strategies have been updated. For example, exercise stress testing is no longer recommended in the initial evaluation of patients…

…isolated disorder of the lower limbs. Patients frequently have concomitant coronary, cerebrovascular or other peripheral arterial disease, and management should therefore address the entire arterial…

…selection of diagnostic tests, and treatment strategies have been updated. For example, exercise stress testing is no longer recommended in the initial evaluation of patients…

…whether specialist lipid assessment is required. A comprehensive cardiovascular assessment should include review of modifiable risk factors and associated disease. The supplied material does not…

…progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental pathophysiological substrate for acute coronary syndromes (ACS), including…

…90 days. The central clinical danger is progressive aortic wall disruption, rupture and compromise of branch vessels. Type A disease may cause cardiac tamponade, severe…

…in light of the improvements in the management of hypertension (coronary heart disease and hypertension are traditionally viewed as the main drivers of heart failure…

…the choice of device therapy and also suggest whether other interventions (e.g. heart failure management, evaluation for coronary artery disease, etc .) are warranted. Management…

…Definition and Pathophysiology Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are foundational therapies in cardiovascular medicine, widely utilized for the management of hypertension, chronic ischemic heart disease…

…broader assessment of peripheral arterial and aortic disease; planned surgery, especially carotid endarterectomy (CEA), coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), or major non cardiac surgery. The…

…ostia. It remains the reference standard for defining the extent of coronary artery disease because it provides anatomical information while permitting functional assessment and, when…

…Reliance on hypokalaemia alone therefore misses a substantial proportion of cases. The cardiorenal and cerebrovascular consequences of unrecognized PA make early case detection clinically important…

…presence and severity of underlying cardiovascular disease. Conduction disease and the need for pacemaker therapy may be more frequent in T2DM, although management follows the…

…Physical Examination Initial assessment should establish whether the presentation represents ACS and whether the patient is clinically unstable. Particular attention is required for evidence of:…

…circuit) and re entry circuits are vulnerable processes that usually self terminate within minutes, hours, or days. In the vast majority of cases, the re…

…which is why expeditious management is warranted. Initial management includes assessing the patient's clinical status (symptoms, hemodynamics), ECG and risk factors (age, previous disease…

…eGFR 30 mL/min. At an eGFR of 15–30 mL/min the documentation is inadequate and closer monitoring is required. Dabigatran is contraindicated at…

…which prompt recognition, specialist assessment and restoration of perfusion are essential. The abrupt arterial obstruction may result from progression of peripheral arterial disease, cardiac or…

…and no obstructive stenosis in a major epicardial coronary artery. Non obstructive disease is generally defined as the absence of a stenosis of 50% or…

…Alternatives The management of TdP and related malignant ventricular arrhythmias requires a structured approach focusing on rhythm stabilization, relief of triggers, and reduction of sympathetic…

…may coexist, and certain disease entities can span both categories; for example, acute heart failure may occur in the context of acute myocardial ischaemia, though…

…out systematically and carefully without delaying time to treatment. History taking, physical examination, ECG and laboratory tests are the cornerstones of management of patients with…

…ECG diagnosis and management Atrial fibrillation is the most common abnormal tachyarrhythmia (only sinus tachycardia is more common). The prevalence of atrial fibrillation correlates strongly…

…and in most cases, there is no significant hemodynamic compromise. However, in cases of rapid AVNRT or in patients with underlying structural heart disease, the…

…catheterization. Principles of management of congenital heart disease and GUCH Complex malformations often require intervention (surgical or catheter based intervention). In addition to the malformation…

…Infarction (STEMI) is the most severe manifestation of coronary artery disease. This chapter deals with the pathophysiology, definitions, criteria and management of patients with acute…

…arises because typical circuits occurring in diseased atria—most frequently following surgery or extensive ablation, or under the influence of antiarrhythmic drugs—can produce atypical…

…plasma renin levels, and potentially aldosterone levels. Clinical Presentation and Symptoms In the management of heart failure, digoxin improves hemodynamics without increasing heart rate or…

…Its incidence and prevalence rise steeply with age, reflecting accumulated risk factors, age related reduction in cardiovascular reserve, and the increasing burden of comorbid disease…

…The combination of physiology, rate of bleeding, the pattern of injury or disease, the response to initial treatment and the expected continued bleeding matters more…

…structures and social expectations. Both influence the prevalence, manifestations, diagnosis, management, treatment response and outcomes of cardiovascular disease. The biological differences between females and males…

…Episodes of headache, palpitations, sweating and pallor that may suggest phaeochromocytoma. Systemic sclerosis, kidney disease, autoimmune disease or previous thrombotic microangiopathy. Antidepressants can affect the…

…calculator has significantly advanced the detection and management of CKD, clinicians should be aware of its limitations. In cases where precise GFR assessment is critical…

…dosing Definition and Pathophysiology Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) constitute a cornerstone in the management of cardiovascular disease, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease …

…Consequently, isolated systolic hypertension and widening pulse pressure are common in later life. These changes contribute to the complexity of defining an appropriate treatment target…

…studies and randomized controlled clinical trials. This knowledge has been translated into remarkable advances in the management of coronary artery disease, as demonstrated in the…

…management, and clinical characteristics. Ventricular tachycardia is a highly nuanced arrhythmia that originates in the ventricles. A wide range of conditions may cause ventricular tachycardia…

…C) is the principal therapeutic target in lipid management because LDL and other apolipoprotein B containing lipoproteins play a causal role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease …

Cardiology Critical care Pharmacology & dosing Definition and Pathophysiology In the management of acute heart failure and cardiogenic shock, intravenous vasoactive agents are categorised according to…

…disease ( Kannel et al, Demirovic et al ). As described by Myerburg et al and Marijon et al , long term prevention of cardiac arrest at the…

…in the management of complex CAD, providing a structured approach to revascularization strategy. While it has limitations, its evolution into SYNTAX Score II and potential…

…to the emergence of symptoms. Evaluation Before Rehabilitation Clinical assessment Rehabilitation begins with patient assessment and ongoing medical surveillance. The programme should account for: The…

…in the range of 120–139/70–89 mmHg, concomitant indications and overall cardiovascular risk influence whether medication is added to lifestyle intervention. Initial monotherapy…

…discussion: the ECG blog Endocrinology & metabolism Cardiovascular medicine is currently witnessing a paradigm shift. For decades, the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and…

…in light of the improvements in the management of hypertension (coronary heart disease and hypertension are traditionally viewed as the main drivers of heart failure…

…aortic or mitral disease (most commonly mitral stenosis). Simultaneous tricuspid regurgitation is also common. Echocardiography Echocardiography has replaced catheterization for the assessment of tricuspid stenosis…

…with structural heart disease, VT necessitates a nuanced, multidisciplinary approach to diagnosis and management. Over the past decade, the landscape of VT management has undergone…

…be increased under stress) and pharmacological anti inflammatory treatment (which must be tapered in a controlled fashion). The management is the opposite in each case…

…Initial assessment should establish whether AF is associated with acute haemodynamic compromise, pulmonary oedema, or evidence of coronary ischaemia. These findings determine the urgency and…

…result is most persuasive when the initial probability is high enough that the result meaningfully increases the likelihood of disease and can justify further investigation…

…patients require a mechanism based assessment rather than reassurance based solely on the absence of obstructive CAD. Evaluation and Physical Examination Clinical assessment The asses

…tremens the aim should be a calm, mildly somnolent but rousable patient, while ventilation, circulation and underlying disease are monitored [3]. The management of complicated…

…as part of fluid management. Contraindications Infection, burn or trauma over the insertion site. Insufficient collateral circulation to the hand. Vascular disease in the limb…

…PCI), or medical management. The standard post ACS regimen is DAPT for 12 months, generally consisting of low dose aspirin and a potent P2Y12 inhibitor…

…The bradyarrhythmias include all bradyarrhythmias, pulse less electrical activity (PEA), and asystole. Bradyarrhythmias are discussed in the chapter Management of Bradycardia (Bradyarrhythmia). Initial rhythm and…

…anomalies to electrical storm and sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) as the index presentation. Over the past three decades, the management of BrS has been fraught…

…the ECG features suggestive of significant LMCA disease, including acute occlusions, subtotal stenoses, and discusses associated clinical presentations, prognostic implications, and management strategies. In the…

…the current and impending burden of disease caused by hypertension is inapprehensible. KEY POINT: 1 billion individuals worldwide have hypertension. Symptoms of hypertension Hypertension is…