…contraction and relaxation. Structural and vascular consequences Common structural consequences include left ventricular hypertrophy, left atrial enlargement, and abnormalities of diastolic filling. Mitral regurgitation may…

…development of increased left ventricular hypertrophy and mass. Initially, myocardial abnormalities may be subclinical. Progressive dilation can subsequently impair left ventricular ejection fraction. Enlargement of…

…retention. Chronic urinary retention with renal impairment or a large residual volume. A need for accurate measurement of urine output in a critically ill patient…

…coronary cause of symptoms. CCS is a clinical syndrome rather than a permanently stable state. Patients may remain stable for prolonged periods, but chronic coronary…

…The resulting haemodynamic congestion produces a characteristic clinical phenotype of breathlessness, fatigue and oedema. This definition does not depend on left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF)…

Cardiology Nephrology Definition and pathophysiology Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined by abnormalities of renal structure or function that persist for more than 3 months…

…chronic angina, an anginal equivalent or exertional dyspnoea. Patients may continue to have lifestyle limiting symptoms despite guideline directed medical therapy (GDMT), prompting consideration of…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

…Chronic, low grade systemic inflammation Insulin resistance Abnormal adipokine signalling Endothelial dysfunction Dyslipidaemia A prothrombotic state Albuminuria and declining estimated glomerular filtration rate Development of…