…focal arterial lesions. Although epicardial coronary arteries are a major site of disease, atherosclerosis is systemic and may affect multiple arterial territories. The arterial wall…

…been identified as important risk factors. Severe atherosclerosis of the axillary or subclavian arteries may increase the risk of embolization. Risk assessment should be individualized…

…CRT) Endocarditis Cardiac tumors Atherosclerosis of the aorta LOW EMBOLIC POTENTIAL SEP (Spontaneous Echocardiographic Potential) Left ventricular aneurysm without thrombus Prolapse of mitral valve Aortic…

…Historically viewed as a simple plumbing problem characterized by the gradual accumulation of inert cholesterol debris, modern vascular biology has redefined atherosclerosis as a dynamic…

…coronary atherosclerosis. The transition from a quiescent plaque to a highly thrombogenic surface occurs via three primary mechanisms: Plaque Rupture: Accounting for 60 70% of…

…artery disease (CHD) are synonyms. These terms refer to symptomatic coronary atherosclerosis. Traditional classification of coronary artery disease Traditionally, coronary artery disease has been classified…

…artery disease (CHD) are synonyms. These terms refer to symptomatic coronary atherosclerosis. Traditional classification of coronary artery disease Traditionally, coronary artery disease has been classified…

…peripheral artery disease (PAD), and other manifestations of systemic atherosclerosis. The principal clinical concern is cerebral embolism or haemodynamic compromise leading to transient ischaemic attack…

…sites. Its cardiovascular effects therefore appear to reflect modulation of vascular inflammation rather than lipid lowering. Other anti inflammatory strategies have produced less favourable results…

…when atherosclerosis is diffuse, leading to underestimation of the overall disease burden. Angiography also provides limited information about plaque composition, vulnerability and the risk of…

…major modifiable driver of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Its relationship with cardiovascular risk is nonlinear: even light smoking carries a substantial proportion of the excess…

…or visceral, adipose tissue is more closely related to insulin resistance and the risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease than total adiposity alone. The waist…

…cardiovascular events are substantially greater than the usually modest anatomical regression of coronary atherosclerosis. The magnitude of LDL C reduction varies according to the statin…

…Other mechanisms include thrombosis, embolism, vasculitis, fibromuscular dysplasia, arterial entrapment, cystic adventitial disease and trauma. Atherosclerotic PAD is a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather…

…II Anatomical SYNTAX Score : Derived from the original SYNTAX Score, which evaluates the complexity of coronary lesions. Clinical Variables : Age : Older patients have a higher…

…from the causal role of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) and other apoB containing lipoproteins in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Atherosclerosis develops through the…

…prothrombotic state Albuminuria and declining estimated glomerular filtration rate Development of type 2 diabetes mellitus Atherosclerotic cardiovascular events HF and atrial fibrillation Obesity therefore acts…

…be controlled despite escalation of antianginal medical therapy, coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), or percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), including attempted recanalization of a chronic total…

…ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are revascularization procedures. Both…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Left main coronary artery disease (LMCAD) refers to atherosclerotic narrowing of the left main coronary artery, which supplies…

…infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Type 2 myocardial infarction (MI) is defined as an ischaemic myocardial injury occurring in the context of a mismatch between myocardial…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…wall of the artery. Such atherosclerotic plaques start building up early in childhood and by middle age, most persons have some degree of atherosclerosis in…

…assessment of cardiac inflammation, infective endocarditis, and cardiac amyloidosis using appropriate radiopharmaceuticals. Functional perfusion imaging primarily identifies haemodynamically important disease. Non obstructive coronary atherosclerosis not…

…atrial appendage, although competing mechanisms such as large artery atherosclerosis and small vessel disease may also contribute to stroke in patients with AF. Stroke risk…

…microvascular disease and vasospasm may coexist with atherosclerosis or may be the dominant cause of ischaemia. Other mechanisms capable of obstructing coronary arteries include embolism…

…cardiovascular societies, defines HF as a clinical syndrome corroborated by elevated natriuretic peptide levels and/or objective evidence of pulmonary or systemic congestion [3] . Within…

…Type B IMH: involves the descending aorta distal to the left subclavian artery. Penetrating atherosclerotic ulcer PAU is focal ulceration of an atherosclerotic plaque that…

…accelerates atherosclerosis, increases myocardial oxygen demand, and may worsen ischemia in patients with obstructive coronary disease. It is also the most prevalent antecedent of heart…

…Addison disease, SLE and type 1 diabetes. Traditional factors such as smoking, family history of premature coronary disease, hypertension and hypercholesterolaemia did not fully explain…

…50 years for researchers to finally conclude that high cholesterol levels caused coronary artery disease and atherosclerosis in general. This required thousands of observational studies…

… concealed diffuse atherosclerosis; myocardial bridging; myocardial metabolic abnormalities; and abnormal pain perception in patients without demonstrable ischaemia. The absence of obstructive disease therefore does not…

…resembling atherosclerosis Often requires intravascular imaging to demonstrate an intramural haematoma or double lumen Type 1 is reported in fewer than one third of cases…

…all cause mortality. The excess risk is mediated by the combined effects of hyperglycaemia, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, obesity, smoking and other conventional risk factors, together with…

…Figure 3. Prognosis in aortic stenosis according to type of stenosis. The patients with low flow (stroke volume index <35 ml/m²) and low gradient…

…have more atherosclerosis (both in frequency and severity) which may compensate for the inability to reach their maximal heart rate. Ultimately, the specificity of exercise…

…central clinical danger is progressive aortic wall disruption, rupture and compromise of branch vessels. Type A disease may cause cardiac tamponade, severe acute aortic regurgitation…

…definitions of acute coronary syndromes (ACS) and acute myocardial infarction (AMI) Acute coronary syndromes occur when atherosclerotic plaques disrupt, resulting in the activation of thrombocytes…

…myocardial necrosis. It most commonly reflects atherothrombosis: disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque followed by platelet activation and coagulation, with formation of an intraluminal thrombus. The…

…outcomes. The vast majority of infections with COVID 19 result in mild disease, with symptoms similar to seasonal flu (influenza) and other viral respiratory infections…

…anatomical considerations warrant it. The contemporary diagnostic strategy also recognises that symptoms of myocardial ischaemia may arise from obstructive atherosclerotic CAD, coronary microvascular dysfunction or…

…artery bypass grafting (CABG) Types 4b and 4c fulfil the criteria for type 1 MI because they represent coronary atherothrombotic events in the setting of…

…type 1 MI. Type 5 MI: Represents a periprocedural myocardial infarction associated with coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). Clinical Presentation and Symptoms The diagnosis of…

…JAMA): [...] Of every 10 such victims, the heart in 6 or 7 showed no recent disease in coronary arteries or in heart muscle. In other…

…but an atherosclerotic plaque may prevent oxygen supply from increasing in parallel with oxygen demands. Depending on several factors– including the severity of the stenosis…

…at which the signal disappears, deflate slowly (2 mmHg/s) and note the pressure at which the signal returns. Repeat on the other arm. 2…

Cardiology Definition and purpose Cardiovascular risk assessment estimates an individual’s probability of experiencing cardiovascular disease (CVD) over a defined period. SCORE2 and SCORE2 Older…

…ECG changes and symptoms. Troponins and other biomarkers of myocardial necrosis (infarction) Myocardium can endure 20 to 30 minutes of complete ischemia. After this period…

…function is also fundamental to global cardiac function. Diastolic dysfunction results in a special type of heart failure, referred to as heart failure with preserved…

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and Therapeutic Rationale Hypertension is a major risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and contributes to microvascular and macrovascular complications. It…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Hypertriglyceridaemia (HTG) is defined by an increased concentration of circulating triglycerides. Both fasting and non fasting measurements provide prognostic…

…zone. Coronary Occlusion and Myocardial Injury STEMI generally results from abrupt reduction in coronary blood flow caused by thrombotic occlusion of a previously atherosclerotic artery…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…anatomical examination that depicts the coronary arterial lumen, atherosclerotic plaque, and the severity and distribution of coronary stenosis. Modern cardiac CT can acquire a three…

…characterized by persistently elevated plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) from early life and a consequent excess risk of premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD)…

…located below the renal arteries and are related to atherosclerotic disease. At least 90% of AAAs larger than 4 cm are associated with atherosclerotic pathology…

…of physiological stress, but it may also occur at rest or remain clinically silent. The underlying coronary disease may be obstructive or non obstructive. Atherosclerotic…

…with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) or heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia. The broader therapeutic principle is that LDL C reduction is associated with cardiovascular benefit regardless of…

…Definition and Pathophysiology Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a hepatic protein that regulates the availability of the low density lipoprotein receptor (LDL…

…cellular mechanisms remain proposed explanations for observed clinical effects. Cardiovascular and renal disease associations Diabetes substantially increases the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, myocardial infarction…