…decades. Advances in echocardiography have been propelled by breakthroughs in engineering, software development, and progress in our understanding of the pathophysiology of cardiac disease. Ultrasound…

…LVEF ≥50%. The ejection fraction classification is clinically useful but should not be regarded as a series of completely discrete diseases. Heart failure extends across…

…also consistent with the vector theory; elevation in one lead should be recorded as depression in a lead with an opposite angle of observation. However…

…coronary ostia, and acquiring multiple angiographic projections. Although traditionally regarded as an anatomical examination, contemporary ICA can provide complementary functional and structural information. Coronary pressure…

…As illustrated in Figure 1, the orifice of the aortic valve and the ascending aorta can be regarded as a cylinder, and the same assumption…

…Instead, the infarct related electrical changes may be recorded indirectly as reciprocal abnormalities in the anterior precordial leads. Acute myocardial ischaemia alters the resting membrane…

…elevated liver enzymes or transaminases, and thrombocytopenia—is generally regarded as a severe preeclamptic phenotype or variant. Pathophysiology The precise mechanism of preeclampsia remains incompletely…

…pressure. The source material does not provide an exhaustive list of such agents. Resistant hypertension Resistant hypertension is not regarded as a discrete disease; rather…

…of patients with SCAD. SCAD should therefore prompt consideration of systemic arteriopathy rather than being regarded solely as an isolated coronary event. SCAD predominantly affects…

…limb lead II. Normal (physiological) causes of sinus bradycardia Sinus bradycardia (SB) is considered a normal finding in the following circumstances: During sleep . Well trained…