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The ST segment: physiology, normal appearance, ST depression & ST elevation

…displacement of the ST segment. The ST segment may be displaced upwards (ST segment elevation) or downwards (ST segment depression). The term ST segment deviation…

Cardiac arrest during pregnancy and childbirth

…the fundal height surpasses the umbilicus, the uterus should be manually displaced to the woman's left side (Figure 1). Additional offloading of the vena…

Continuous Wave Doppler (CW Doppler)

…two different sets of piezoelectric crystals; one set for sending ultrasound and the other for analyzing reflected sound waves. The cardinal difference between continuous wave…

The Cabrera format of the 12-lead ECG and inverted lead aVR

…if leads I, II and III would have been displayed next to each other, the T wave inversion in lead III would not be consistent…

Two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography

…sector is created using sequential activation of the piezoelectric crystals. The crystals are activated from one side to the other, as illustrated in Figure 2…

Assessment of Pacemaker Malfunction

…misplaced stimulation artifacts, irregular pacing, etc. Most cases of malfunction are associated with the electronics in the pulse generator or dislodgement or fracture of the…

The electrical axis of the heart (ECG axis)

…aVF (with QRS duration <0.12 seconds), provided that other causes of right axis deviation have been excluded. Causes of left axis deviation Left bundle…

The electrical axis of the heart (heart axis): ECG & physiology

…s, provided that other causes of left axis deviation have been excluded. Causes of extreme axis deviation Rare. Most likely due to misplaced limb electrodes…

ECG signs of myocardial infarction: pathological Q-waves & pathological R-waves

…wave Normal variants V2–V3 ≥0,02 s or QS complex None All other leads ≥0,03 s and ≥1 mm deep (or QS complex…

Other ECG changes in ischemia and infarction

…of ischemia (but the sensitivity is low). U wave changes always accompany other ischemic ST T changes. They may occur in both NSTEMI and STEMI…

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