…alter the local vascular environment. The extracellular matrix is an active component of lesion development rather than merely a structural scaffold. Smooth muscle cells and…

…rise can cause osmotic demyelination syndrome [1,2]. Hyponatraemia is primarily a disorder of water balance. The plasma sodium reflects the ratio between the body…

…ischemia. Inverted U waves are even more typical of ischemia (but the sensitivity is low). U wave changes always accompany other ischemic ST T changes…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…left ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are revascularization procedures…

…examination The use of echocardiography has increased dramatically during the past few decades. Advances in echocardiography have been propelled by breakthroughs in engineering, software development…

…the primary distinction being the exclusion of sex parameter (female sex) as a risk factor. Rationale for the development of CHA₂DS₂ VA The CHA₂DS₂ VASc…

…is a common and early electrocardiographic sign of acute pericarditis, reflecting pericardial involvement overlying the atria [4, 5]. Other Differential Diagnoses ST segment elevations simulating…

…often necessary to normalize blood pressure. Management of hypertension requires careful consideration of other cardiovascular risk factors and coexisting conditions. Therapy must be tailored to…

…the entire electrocardiographic (ECG) development in STE ACS/STEMI. Note that a patient with STEMI may present during any of the phases illustrated in this…