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Approach to patients with chest pain: differential diagnoses, management & ECG

…embolism Mediastinitis (rare condition) In addition to these five conditions, there are numerous other causes of chest pain, but the other causes are either subacute…

Coronary Anomalies and Myocardial Bridging

…the diagnostic method. Myocardial bridging has been identified in approximately 0.5–12% of angiographic series and up to 5–75% of CT series; other…

Familial Hypercholesterolaemia: Diagnosis, Cascade Screening and Treatment

…Physical findings related to cholesterol deposition. Untreated or inadequately treated patients may develop premature CAD. Symptoms therefore depend on the vascular territory involved and may…

The ST segment: physiology, normal appearance, ST depression & ST elevation

…other conditions that affect the ST T segment and it is fundamental to be able to differentiate these. For this purpose it is wise to…

Chest Pain in the Emergency Department: Diagnostic Pathways

…in the chest and may extend to the arms, shoulders, neck, jaw, upper back, abdomen, or epigastrium. Dyspnoea, nausea, vomiting, diaphoresis, fatigue, faintness, and other…

Hypertension: Causes, investigations, complications & treatment

…and a Western lifestyle are strongly related to the development of hypertension. Developing and non Western countries rarely display the blood pressure trajectories and high…

Acute Coronary Syndrome: Definitions and Initial Triage

…in the clinical setting of acute myocardial ischaemia and is diagnosed according to the fourth universal definition of MI. Type 1 MI is generally related…

Resistant Hypertension: Evaluation and Treatment

…In clinical practice, the condition is identified primarily through persistently elevated blood pressure despite multidrug treatment rather than through specific symptoms. The clinical importance lies…

Stent Thrombosis: Timing, Causes, Diagnosis, and Prevention

…thrombus can fragment, embolize to other coronary branches or vascular beds, propagate through gaps between stent struts, and compromise the treated lumen. Conventional angiography has…

Type 2 Myocardial Infarction: Mechanisms and Management

…an ischaemic myocardial injury occurring in the context of a mismatch between myocardial oxygen supply and demand, which is not related to acute coronary atherothrombosis…

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