…and clinical features The pericardium is a double walled sac in which the heart and the roots of the great vessels are contained (Figure 1)…

…cardiac arrests are caused by acute or chronic coronary artery disease, with the latter being the most common. The figure 80% occurs in most textbooks…

…most cardiac conditions may be associated with atrial flutter. As compared with several other supraventricular tachyarrhythmias, atrial flutter does not occur among otherwise healthy individuals…

…lead II. Extreme axis deviation (–90°to 180°) : Net negative QRS complex in leads I and II. Figure 2. The direction of the QRS complex. Axis…

…axis deviation Normal in newborns. Right ventricular hypertrophy. Acute cor pulmonale (pulmonary embolism). Chronic cor pulmonale (COPD, pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary valve stenosis). Lateral ventricular infarction…

…wave can be seen. This is pathognomonic (unique) to ventricular fibrillation and must not be confused with any other arrhythmia. Figure 1. Ventricular fibrillation and…

…positive QRS complex should be followed by a positive T wave, and vice versa ( Figure 17 ). Otherwise there is discordance (opposite directions of QRS and…

Cardiology Nephrology Definition and pathophysiology Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined by abnormalities of renal structure or function that persist for more than 3 months…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…