…condition. It is associated with a two to four fold increase in lifetime cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk and approximately doubles cardiovascular risk on average. Its…

…and death. The clinical consequences are particularly important when pulmonary vascular obstruction is accompanied by limited cardiopulmonary reserve or other adverse comorbidity. The classification of…

…the dosing, the adverse effects and the important precautions. A hypertensive emergency is defined by a markedly raised blood pressure in combination with new or…

…the sensitization of sensory nerve endings due to the accumulation of bradykinin. ACE is responsible for metabolizing bradykinin and other tachykinins, such as substance P…

…Dyslipidaemia, cigarette smoking, hypertension, diabetes mellitus and other adverse influences disturb these functions. The resulting endothelial dysfunction promotes inappropriate vasoconstriction, adhesion of circulating cells, inflammatory…

…recurrent symptoms, myocardial infarction, or other major adverse cardiovascular events. Complete revascularization is therefore considered an important therapeutic objective, particularly in patients with left ventricular…

…myocardial infarction may coexist with adverse effects on stroke, heart failure, cardiovascular mortality and atrial fibrillation. Consequently, alcohol should not be initiated as a cardiovascular…

…characterized by reduced physiological reserve and increased vulnerability to adverse outcomes. It is dynamic and may improve or worsen with illness, treatment, or other interventions…

…left ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are revascularization procedures…

…other inhaled nicotine products. In cardiovascular medicine, the objective is not merely to reduce cigarette consumption but to achieve complete abstinence from tobacco and ultimately…