…history indicating possible secondary hypertension should undergo appropriate screening for an underlying secondary cause. Evaluation and physical examination Standardized office measurement Accurate technique is essential…

…clinical context, the diagnosis requires evidence of new myocardial ischaemia, which may manifest through symptoms, ECG changes, or angiographic complications. Evaluation and Physical Examination The

…contribute to the development and progression of aortic pathology. Severe HTG, especially when associated with chylomicronaemia, has a well established observational association with acute pancreatitis…

…recovery of ejection fraction, and survival has been challenged by randomized trials. Relationship between viability and LV recovery Observational studies and positron emission tomography (PET…

…examination profile or diagnostic physical signs for LMCAD. Diagnostic Assessment Coronary angiography Invasive coronary angiography defines: The presence and severity of left main stenosis Ostial…

…itself. The thrombus is often asymptomatic and cannot be diagnosed reliably by examination alone. Assessment should include evaluation for: Hemodynamic instability or cardiogenic shock. Clinical…

…cross sectional and longitudinal information about the artery. The clinical value of these techniques rests on their ability to characterize the anatomy responsible for a…

…Neurological status, urine output, creatinine, acid–base status and signs of myocardial ischaemia must be monitored during treatment [4,6]. Important exceptions Condition Overall strategy…

…old, healthy and diseased individuals. For example, roughly 90% of males aged <30 years display concave ST segment elevations in leads V2–V3. This explains…

…compromise of the airway, breathing or circulation. Skin symptoms may be absent, and circulatory shock does not have to be present for the condition to…

…burden. Assessment of the size, mass, geometry, and function of the left ventricle is fundamental for the diagnosis and prognosis of most cardiac diseases, including…

…The longer the distance, the more time required for sound waves to travel back and forth, which results in lower pulse repetition frequency (fewer ultrasound…

…of the evidence was observational and the results must not be taken to mean that an electronic alert replaces clinical judgement [5]. Recognising sepsis Suspected…

…the communication and the simultaneous delivery of red cells, plasma and platelets. Observational data from trauma suggest a lower overall mortality after such protocols are…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and Pathophysiology Dietary patterns are the overall combinations of foods habitually consumed rather than isolated nutrients considered independently. For cardiometabolic health…

…uncomplicated acute coronary syndrome when LVEF is 40% is not definitive. Observational studies have yielded conflicting results, and the appropriate duration of therapy in p

…improves vascular health and may reduce cardiovascular risk within several years, although risk may remain higher than that of never smokers for a prolonged period…

…are considered unreliable for guiding treatment because of potential confounding, reverse causality, and the association of arterial stiffness with both low DBP and increased mortality…

…50 years for researchers to finally conclude that high cholesterol levels caused coronary artery disease and atherosclerosis in general. This required thousands of observational studies…

…Primary prevention For adults aged 40–75 years without diabetes and with LDL C between 70 and 189 mg/dL, 10 year risk of a…

…accounting for approximately 80% of cases. Other causes include acute mechanical complications—particularly ventricular septal defect (VSD) and papillary muscle rupture with acute severe mitral…

…coronary and cerebral circulation, as well as allowing for gas exchange in the lungs. A large number of experimental and observational studies have been conducted…

…OMI/NOMI approach is primarily supported by observational studies and clinical experience. Studies have demonstrated that a significant proportion of patients with acute coronary occlusion …

…during the first few minutes of these arrhythmias. This is evident from randomized trials and observational studies examining the efficacy of ICD (implantable cardioverter defibrillator…

…Fluid and monitoring Use a balanced crystalloid in the first instance. Give small boluses, for example 250 to 500 mL, with immediate reassessment of the…

…evidence for many of the recommendations is based on few randomized trials and the evidence is often conflicting. Many recommendations are therefore based on observational…