…s disease), degeneration associated with connective tissue disorders (Marfan syndrome, Ehlers Danlos syndrome), osteogenesis imperfecta typically causes prolapse of P2 (Figure 1). Myocardial ischemia affecting…

…phenotypic expression complicate risk prediction. Familial clustering may also reflect shared environmental or behavioural factors rather than a single gene disorder. This distinction is important…

…cardiomyopathy (hypertrophic or dilated), arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, Brugada syndrome, early repolarization. Electrolyte disorders, acidosis, hypoxemia and ischemia all aggravate the risk of developing ventricular…

…at the top. Refer to Figure 1 . Patients with left ventricular hypertrophy may instead display normalization of secondary T wave inversions (lead V5, V6, aVL…

…Cardiac Amyloidosis Definition and Pathophysiology Cardiac amyloidosis (CA) is a protein misfolding disorder characterized by the extracellular deposition of misfolded fibrillar proteins in the myocardium…

…electrolyte disorders , congenital heart disease and catecholamine induced ventricular tachycardia . The vast majority of patients with ventricular tachycardia either have coronary artery disease (ischemic heart…

…reduced area of the valvular orifice. Both aortic stenosis and hypertension result in increased ventricular load, which the ventricle counteracts by developing hypertrophy. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy…

…with later cardiovascular risk include: Premature menopause Premature ovarian insufficiency Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy Preeclampsia Preterm delivery Gestational diabetes Small for gestational age delivery Placental…

…PA), also termed primary hyperaldosteronism or Conn syndrome, comprises disorders in which aldosterone secretion is inappropriately increased, relatively autonomous from angiotensin II and plasma potassium…

…ventricular hypertrophy. Hypertension, diabetes, and elevated NT proBNP are more frequent in this pattern. Endothelial dysfunction may contribute to both microvascular and epicardial vasomotor disorders…