…in cardiomyopathy families may reach 70–90% by age 70 years. In hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), expression may occur more rapidly during childhood and early adulthood…

Cardiology Genetic and miscellaneous conditions Definition and pathophysiology Familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) is an inherited disorder characterized by persistently elevated plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL…

…familial (autosomal dominant) cardiac syndrome. The underlying genetic abnormality is yet to be discovered. Diagnosis of this syndrome is based on ECG, family history and…

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and pharmacological rationale Bempedoic acid is an oral, small molecule lipid lowering agent used to reduce low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL…

…familial hypercholesterolaemia, established CVD, moderate or severe CKD, or HMOD. Variables incorporated into SCORE2 and SCORE2 OP The models include conventional cardiovascular risk factors: Age…

…heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia or ASCVD who require further LDL C lowering. It should be considered within a stepwise, target based lipid lowering strategy: Dietary and…

…the rationale for therapeutic inhibition. Gain of function PCSK9 mutations are associated with familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) and premature coronary heart disease, whereas loss of function…

…ectopic aldosterone production Familial forms include familial hyperaldosteronism type 1, formerly termed glucocorticoid remediable aldosteronism, and other familial forms associated with adrenal adenoma or bilateral…

…thyrotoxicosis, familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia, Addison's disease, renal failure, tamoxifen, lithium, thiazide diuretics, D vitamin and calcium overdose. ECG changes due to hypercalcemia Common ECG…

…three main questions discussed in media, blogs and on social plattforms: Is high cholesterol a true cause of coronary artery disease? Does diet affect cholesterol…

Cardiology Clinical chemistry & laboratory medicine Definition and structure Lipoprotein(a), abbreviated Lp(a), is an LDL like circulating lipoprotein particle. It contains one molecule of…

…thyrotoxicosis, familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia, Addison's disease, renal insufficiency, therapeutic interventions with tamoxifen or lithium, thiazide administration, and over supplementation of calcium and vitamin D…

…echocardiographic measurements are available to assess left ventricular systolic function. These methods elucidate slightly different aspects of systolic function and their combined use allows for…

…should already be familiar with the classification of acute coronary syndromes. Subsequent chapters will deal with ST segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and non ST…

…elderly and revascularized individuals Clinicians should be familiar with the special challenges posed by some patient populations. The sensitivity, specificity, risks, and results of the…

…the ventricles. First degree AV block is rarely serious and may be left untreated in the vast majority of cases (exceptions are discussed later). Second…

…one must be familiar with the vascular supply to these components. Figure 1 presents all relevant parts of the conduction system and their source of…

…is fundamental to be familiar with these principles in order to fully understand echocardiography. In clinical practice, the investigator performs simple measurements and Doppler recordings…

…Pediatric and neonatal electrocardiograms differ markedly – in terms of rhythm, morphology, normal findings, normal variants, etc – from adult electrocardiograms. It is crucial to be familiar…

…the wide use of pacemakers and the trend towards increased use of cardiac devices in general, it is crucial to be familiar with these devices…

Echocardiography Basic sound and ultrasound physics Unlike light waves, which can propagate through vacuum, sound waves can only propagate through a physical medium. This medium…

…standardized, and cheap to interpret. The limitation, familiar to every electrophysiologist, is that LVEF is both insensitive and non specific for SCD. Most people who…

…repolarization. Difference between relative and absolute risk Readers not familiar with the terms absolute and relative risk may be confused by the previous paragraph. The…

…presenting feature. The source material emphasizes that patients and families should be educated to recognize chest discomfort or dyspnoea as potentially indicating myocardial infarction, particularly…

…Physiological Indices The table below summarizes the four index families discussed in this review, mechanism, principal advantages, principal limitations, and the key trials supporting each…