Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Secondary hypertension is elevated blood pressure attributable to a specific, identifiable underlying cause. It should be considered in every…

…and pathophysiology Familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) is an inherited disorder characterized by persistently elevated plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) from early life and a…

…insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia, elevated blood pressure and impaired glucose regulation. Diagnosis is based on the coexistence of defined clinical and laboratory components; the diagnostic criteria…

…Hypertensive emergency is defined as significantly elevated blood pressure (systolic pressure ≥180 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure ≥120 mmHg) with concurrent signs of acute organ…

…compartments. Heart failure is defined physiologically by the inability of the heart to provide blood flow appropriate to tissue requirements unless filling pressures are elevated…

…failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome in which the heart cannot deliver blood at a rate appropriate to tissue requirements unless filling pressures are elevated…

…of ≥50%, accompanied by objective evidence of structural and/or functional cardiac abnormalities and/or elevated natriuretic peptides (NPs) [1] [2] . The evolution of HF…

…cardiovascular societies, defines HF as a clinical syndrome corroborated by elevated natriuretic peptide levels and/or objective evidence of pulmonary or systemic congestion [3] . Within…

…Hypertensive emergency is defined as significantly elevated blood pressure (systolic pressure ≥180 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure ≥120 mmHg) with concurrent signs of acute organ…

…reducing arrhythmic events, contingent upon the specific mutation present. For patients at elevated risk—such as those with a history of cardiac arrest, recurrent syncope…

…reducing arrhythmic events, contingent upon the specific mutation present. For patients at elevated risk—such as those with a history of cardiac arrest, recurrent syncope…

…risk of type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome and specific cancers. BMI and cardiovascular outcomes High BMI is associated with several health conditions: Type 2 diabetes…

…risk. Left Atrial Diameter (LA) : Enlargement of the left atrium is a marker of elevated left ventricular filling pressures and is linked to adverse outcomes…

…imaging and elevated cardiac biomarkers. Intermediate low risk PE includes stable patients who are not low risk but have either RV dysfunction or elevated biomarkers…

…diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of ≥90 mmHg. It introduces a separate category of elevated blood pressure, defined as office SBP 120–139 mmHg or DBP…

…a normal or low pulse pressure, an elevated jugular venous pressure with a paradoxical rise on inspiration (Kussmaul sign), and a difficult to palpate apex…

…an important consideration in older populations. Risk prediction is particularly relevant in adults with elevated blood pressure (BP), in whom absolute cardiovascular risk varies considerably…

…myocardial injury, defined by an elevated cardiac troponin (cTn) value with at least one value above the 99th percentile upper reference limit (URL). The injury…

…ACS). Cardiac troponin is a marker of myocardial injury, not a disease specific marker of myocardial infarction (MI). MI requires both: Acute myocardial injury, demonstrated…

…When to Initiate Pharmacological Treatment Lifestyle intervention is an essential component of care. In adults with elevated blood pressure, nonpharmacological management should be actively implemented…

…Natriuretic peptide concentrations reflect haemodynamic stress, but their release is not specific to left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Levels may also rise with: Left ventricular diastolic…

…groups and generally remain relatively stable throughout life. Lp(a) is elevated in approximately one in five individuals. Pathophysiology Lp(a) is associated with several…

…woman with preeclampsia. HELLP syndrome—haemolysis, elevated liver enzymes or transaminases, and thrombocytopenia—is generally regarded as a severe preeclamptic phenotype or variant. Pathophysiology The…

…central venous, right atrial, and right ventricular end diastolic pressures—are elevated, whereas left ventricular filling pressure is usually normal or only modestly increased. Right…

…the whole community through healthier environmental defaults, whereas individual level prevention focuses more intensively on people with elevated risk. These approaches are not alternatives: both…

…In heavy smokers, cardiovascular risk falls within five years of stopping but may remain elevated thereafter. The overall health benefit is greater still when reductions…

…symptoms (SAMS). These range from diffuse myalgia with a normal CK and no functional impairment to myositis with muscle inflammation and elevated CK. Rhabdomyolysis is…

…assay specific 99th percentile upper reference limit (URL). It is considered acute when there is a rise and/or fall in cTn values. An elevated…

…systole. Transesophageal echocardiography and surgical pathology demonstrate that over 90% of thrombi in non valvular AF originate within this specific anatomical cul de sac [19] …

…Measure serum lactate levels . Elevated lactate is an indicator of tissue hypoperfusion and can guide resuscitative efforts. If the patient presents with hypotension or has…

…conventional chest compressions are ineffective. This is explained by the elevated intrapericardial pressure due to the tamponade. The increased pressure causes compression of the atria…

…is cardiac specific but the cTnT assays also detect proteins released from skeletal muscle. Consequently, skeletal muscle damage or inflammation may result in elevated cTnT…

…as the preferred biomarkers because they are extremely sensitive and specific for myocardial injury. Elevated levels of cardiac troponins is firm evidence of myocardial necrosis…

…particularly obstructive pulmonary disease, the use of theophylline, and elevated catecholamine states. EAT typically has an abrupt onset, although a brief warm up phase lasting…

…shows localized ST segment elevations, T wave inversions and occasionally pathological Q waves. Troponin levels are often mildly elevated. Hence, takotsubo cardiomyopathy cannot be differentiated…

…to vital organs than systolic blood pressure alone. Predictive Value : Elevated MAP has been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, such as stroke…

…nasogastric tube. Warnings and Precautions Increased risk of bleeding, especially in patients with known elevated bleeding risk. Discontinuation of Ticagrelor should be avoided. If a…

…to track more closely with apoB. Discordantly high apoB is especially associated with metabolic syndrome and mildly elevated triglycerides, even when LDL C is normal…

…an elevated cardiac troponin concentration and new ST segment depression in new onset AF should not automatically be labelled type 2 myocardial infarction without further…

…pressure may be harmful in significantly frail patients, especially when baseline blood pressure is not markedly elevated. These apparent J shaped associations are considered unreliable…

…total, 82 patients (19.7%) had elevated high sensitivity troponin I (TnI) levels. The mortality rate among patients with elevated troponin I was 51.2%…

…release of cardiac troponin, but troponin elevation is not specific for myocardial infarction. Other conditions may produce cardiomyocyte injury and elevated troponin, so biomarker interpretation…

…also worsens the prognosis of established CVD. Mechanisms linking CKD to cardiovascular disease The association is mediated by both traditional and kidney specific pathways. Diabetes…

…by itself, establish the presence or haemodynamic significance of a specific stenosis. Clinical Role and Indications CAC scoring is principally a risk stratification tool for…

…requirements or can do so only at the cost of elevated filling pressures. Congestion and elevated filling pressures produce the characteristic clinical syndrome of breathlessness…

…LDL C or non HDL C, particularly in patients with metabolic syndrome or elevated triglycerides despite normal or low LDL C. HDL cholesterol (HDL C…

…V6), while ST segments are elevated and T waves are typically upright in leads with predominantly negative QRS complexes (such as V1 and V2) [7]…

…Hypertension, diabetes, and elevated NT proBNP are more frequent in this pattern. Endothelial dysfunction may contribute to both microvascular and epicardial vasomotor disorders. Endothelial activation…

…Myocardial injury Myocardial injury is a biochemical diagnosis defined by at least one cardiac troponin value above the assay specific 99th percentile upper reference limit…

…of the PR segment. ST segment elevation implies that the ST segment is elevated above the level of the PR segment. The magnitude of any…

…correlates with evidence of injury on cardiac magnetic resonance. Interpretation is more difficult when the baseline troponin is already elevated, as occurs during acute MI…

…characteristic clinical syndrome consists of: Malaise Fever Pericardial or chest discomfort Leukocytosis Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate Pericardial effusion Pericardial pain is often sharp and pleuritic…

…In clinical practice, the condition is identified primarily through persistently elevated blood pressure despite multidrug treatment rather than through specific symptoms. The clinical importance lies…

…is loss of contractile myocardium, with reduced cardiac output and systemic hypoperfusion. LV failure may produce elevated filling pressures, pulmonary venous hypertension, and pulmonary congestion…

…a total occlusion in a coronary artery occurs (then of course, the ST segment will be elevated). T wave inversion (inverted / negative T waves) T…

…PSAX (parasternal short axis view). Individuals with bicuspid aortic valves have substantially elevated risk of developing aortic stenosis. The prevalence of bicuspid aortic valves is…

…elevations are classified as STE ACS . Virtually all cases of STE ACS lead to myocardial infarction (elevated troponin levels), whereafter the condition is classified as…

…which results in ST elevations on the ECG. Virtually all patients with STE ACS exhibit elevated troponin levels, and are thereby diagnosed as ST elevation…

…coronary arteries (Felker et al). Left ventricular dilation entails a markedly elevated risk of ventricular tachycardia and cardiac arrest, regardless of the underlying cause of…

…ST segment and T wave (ST T changes). The ST segment may be either elevated or depressed. The T wave may diminish in amplitude ( flat…