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The ST segment: physiology, normal appearance, ST depression & ST elevation

…may be displaced upwards (ST segment elevation) or downwards (ST segment depression). The term ST segment deviation refers to elevation and depression of the ST…

Cardiac arrest during pregnancy and childbirth

…the uterus should be manually displaced to the woman's left side (Figure 1). Additional offloading of the vena cava can be accomplished using a…

Continuous Wave Doppler (CW Doppler)

…1). This is possible by using two different sets of piezoelectric crystals; one set for sending ultrasound and the other for analyzing reflected sound waves…

The Cabrera format of the 12-lead ECG and inverted lead aVR

…from right anterior (V1) to left lateral (V6), but regrettably, the limb leads are not. Instead, the limb leads are displayed in two groups of…

Two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography

…one side to the other, as illustrated in Figure 2. The sequence of activation goes from right to left and then from left to right…

Assessment of Pacemaker Malfunction

…or fracture of the leads. External causes are less common and include electrolyte disorders, metabolic disorders, hypoxemia, antiarrhythmic drugs, or electromagnetic disturbance caused by other…

The electrical axis of the heart (ECG axis)

…12 seconds), provided that other causes of right axis deviation have been excluded. Causes of left axis deviation Left bundle branch block. Left ventricular hypertrophy…

The electrical axis of the heart (heart axis): ECG & physiology

…12 seconds), provided that other causes of right axis deviation have been excluded. Causes of left axis deviation Left bundle branch block. Left ventricular hypertrophy…

ECG signs of myocardial infarction: pathological Q-waves & pathological R-waves

…wave infarction) Lead Definition of pathological Q wave Normal variants V2–V3 ≥0,02 s or QS complex None All other leads ≥0,03 s…

Tricuspid regurgitation (TR/TI)

…myocardium (failure of embryological delamination). The tricuspid valve annulus is displaced apically 0.8 mm/m 2 BSA. Basal segments of the right ventricle (i…

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