…Causes of hyperkalaemia Severe hyperkalemia is usually the result of several interacting factors, such as renal failure, insufficient corticosteroid substitution, acidosis, hemolysis and massive muscle…

…adventitial disease and trauma. Atherosclerotic PAD is a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather than an isolated disorder of the lower limbs. Patients frequently have…

…cigarette smoking, hypertension and diabetes mellitus—disturb endothelial function and favour the accumulation of fat, smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts and extracellular matrix beneath the endothelium…

…vomiting, muscle cramps, apathy, confusion, impaired reflexes. Severe <115 mmol/L Seizures, coma, respiratory arrest, brainstem herniation and death. Table 2. Grading of hyponatremia. Hypernatremia…

…Low body mass index Asian ancestry Previous muscle disease or a personal or family history of muscle disorders Acute infection Renal or hepatic impairment Hypothyroidism…

…connective tissue disorders (Marfan syndrome, Ehlers Danlos syndrome), osteogenesis imperfecta typically causes prolapse of P2 (Figure 1). Myocardial ischemia affecting the papillary muscles or the…

…a young age in the patient or family Hypertensive first degree relatives of patients with PA Patients with hypokalaemia may develop weakness, muscle cramps or…

…muscle cells, leading to a white, platelet rich thrombus. Myocardial vulnerability, largely driven by coronary microvascular dysfunction, also contributes to the extension and severity of…

…respiratory disorders, notably obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) and obesity hypoventilation syndrome, which further increase cardiovascular burden. Obesity may be a particularly important cause of HF…

…Malignancy: A history suggesting an autoimmune disorder or known malignancy may suggest specific, nonidiopathic etiologies [2]. Summary of Pain Characteristics The following table synthesizes the…