…dyslipidaemia, and diabetes mellitus Reduce anxiety and depressive symptoms Facilitate return to work and appropriate recreational or sporting activity Limit recurrent myocardial infarction, cardiovascular morbidity…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and pathophysiology Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death among women worldwide and in the United States. In the…

…diet, physical inactivity, and alcohol consumption. Additional considerations include psychosocial stress, obstructive sleep apnoea, social determinants of health, air pollution, family history, ethnicity, and frailty…

…compatible with HeFH. Evaluation and physical examination Assessment begins with systematic lipid screening and a careful clinical, medical, social and multigenerational family history. The evaluation…

…This required thousands of observational studies, genetic studies and randomized controlled clinical trials. This knowledge has been translated into remarkable advances in the management of…

…useful in both acute and ambulatory presentations, but the appropriate thresholds differ substantially according to the clinical setting. Values obtained in the emergency department for…

Cardiology Clinical chemistry & laboratory medicine Definition and structure Lipoprotein(a), abbreviated Lp(a), is an LDL like circulating lipoprotein particle. It contains one molecule of…

…The LDL C response varies with background therapy: Treatment setting Approximate LDL C reduction versus placebo Monotherapy 23% Added to background statin therapy 18% Fixed…

…elevated blood pressure and impaired glucose regulation. Diagnosis is based on the coexistence of defined clinical and laboratory components; the diagnostic criteria themselves are not…

…Books that claim to make it "simple" can provide a quick entry point but fail to delve into the crucial depths needed for clinical practice…

…the outer cell membrane. Clinical presentation of Brugada syndrome Most patients are asymptomatic until the age of 20 to 55 years. The disorder may manifest…

Emergency medicine Lathundar Differential Diagnosis of Chest Pain: A Clinical Overview The evaluation of acute chest discomfort requires a systematic differential diagnosis, as the syndrome…

…myocardial necrosis [4]. Clinical Implications and Prognosis Mechanical and Diagnostic Impact LBBB causes extensive reorganization of left ventricular activation [2]. This leads to abnormal LV…

ECG Introduction to ECG interpretation Lathundar The Cardiac Electrical Axis: Definition, Clinical Implications, and Deviations Definition and Mechanism of the Electrical Axis The heart's…

…that small ventricular volumes are compensated with greater ejection fractions. The significance of ventricular size becomes obvious in the setting of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM, HOCM)…

ECG Hypertrophy and dilatation ECG and clinical characteristics in right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH) Figure 1. ECG changes seen in left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and right…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology ECG Sinoatrial block (SA block): from ECG to clinical management Sinoatrial (SA) block implies that the impulses discharged in the sinoatrial node…

Clinical medicine Emergency medicine Definition and pathophysiology Acute limb ischaemia (ALI) is an abrupt reduction in arterial perfusion of an upper or lower limb that…

…or another non intensive care setting while serial testing is completed. Diagnostic Framework The diagnostic pathway combines three principal domains: Clinical presentation and vital signs…

…Causes of myocardial injury Important causes include: Mechanism or clinical setting Examples Acute coronary atherothrombosis Plaque disruption or erosion with thrombosis Reduced myocardial perfusion Coronary…

…such as amyloidosis or sarcoidosis Other cardiac procedures Chemotherapeutic agents Catheter ablation Critical illness Defibrillator shocks Strenuous exercise Cardiac contusion The diagnosis should therefore distinguish…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and Pathophysiology An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is diagnosed when the abdominal aortic diameter exceeds 3 cm. Most AAAs are located…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and scope Alcohol has dose , pattern , duration , sex , and genetically influenced effects on the cardiovascular system. Acute exposure produces transient haemodynamic…

Cardiology Clinical chemistry & laboratory medicine Definition and Pathophysiology Apolipoprotein B (apoB) and non high density lipoprotein cholesterol (non HDL C) are complementary measures of atherogenic…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and Clinical Context Blood pressure management in older adults must account for chronological age, biological age, frailty, multimorbidity, cognitive status, functional…

…cognitive impairment, and reduced physiologic reserve may dominate clinical outcomes and limit tolerance of otherwise evidence based interventions. Hypertension and vascular disease Hypertension is the…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and scope Inflammatory and autoimmune diseases are immune mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs) that include rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriatic arthritis, spondyloarthropathies, systemic…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and Pathophysiology Dietary patterns are the overall combinations of foods habitually consumed rather than isolated nutrients considered independently. For cardiometabolic health…

…atypical leg symptoms and fewer than 10% have classic claudication. Asymptomatic or atypical PAD remains clinically important. Reduced activity may lead to progressive functional decline…

…previous activity level, psychological factors, goals and the intended setting. Pre participation screening should follow applicable cardiovascular exercise screening guidance. In individuals with cardiovascular disease…

…creatinine ratio ≥0.3. Preeclampsia may nevertheless be diagnosed without proteinuria when clinical symptoms or laboratory abnormalities indicate end organ injury. Eclampsia is the occurrence…

…Cardiovascular benefits of cessation The principal benefits relevant to clinical cardiology include: Clinical setting or outcome Reported benefit of cessation Cardiovascular disease overall Substantial reduction…

Kardiologi Akutsjukvård Intensivvård Lathundar Clinical use This overview is a quick reference to the intravenous antihypertensive drugs used in a hypertensive emergency. It summarises the…

Njurmedicin Lathundar The main clinical rule Two questions determine the initial management: 1. Does the patient have severe neurological symptoms that may be due to…

…or a reduced requirement for antihypertensives, should prompt clinical suspicion [1]. Cardiac Signs and Symptoms Patients often present with symptoms of predominant right heart failure…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Introduction Clinical assessment of coronary artery disease (CAD) requires integration of symptoms, cardiovascular risk, coronary anatomy, myocardial ischaemia, ventricular function…

…pulmonary, and aortic angiography can achieve less than 5 mSv in appropriate settings. Clinical Presentation and Indications CCTA is relevant to several clinical presentations. Stable…

ECG Exercise stress test Definition and clinical role Exercise electrocardiographic testing is a standardized assessment in which a patient performs progressively increasing external work, usually…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Clinical Significance In stent restenosis (ISR) is recurrent narrowing within a previously implanted coronary stent. It represents a form…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Procedurer Definition and Clinical Role Invasive coronary angiography (ICA) is a catheter based investigation that visualizes the coronary arterial tree after…

…between myocardial oxygen supply and demand. The clinical history should therefore be examined for potential physiological or systemic stressors, with treatment directed at the precipitating…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Clinical Purpose Myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) with single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or positron emission tomography (PET…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and clinical rationale Stable angina, or chronic chest pain attributable to suspected chronic coronary syndrome, is evaluated by estimating…

ECG Hypertrophy and dilatation ECG and clinical characteristics in left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) The following figure shows characteristic ECG changes in left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH…

[calc_hemorrhages] The HEMORR₂HAGES bleeding risk score is a clinical tool developed to assess the risk of major bleeding in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF…

…is not simply to establish whether the patient has ACS. It is to determine whether the patient is clinically unstable, identify life threatening diagnoses rapidly…

…sleep disordered breathing, cancer related disease and cardiac amyloidosis among the relevant clinical settings or comorbidities. HFrEF is distinguished from heart failure with mildly reduced…

Cardiology Definition and classification Heart failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome in which the heart cannot deliver blood at a rate appropriate to tissue requirements…

Cardiology Definition and Pathophysiology Resistant hypertension is a clinical indicator rather than a distinct disease. It identifies patients whose blood pressure remains uncontrolled despite intensive…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology ECG Atrioventricular Nodal Reentry (Reentrant) Tachycardia (AVNRT): clinical features, mechanisms, ECG & management Atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is a common tachyarrhythmia observed…

…ECG First degree AV block: ECG criteria, clinical characteristics & management This chapter discusses first degree atrioventricular (AV) block, also referred to as 1st degree AV…

Cardiology Definition and terminology Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome characterized by symptoms and signs resulting from structural or functional impairment of ventricular…

Conduction defects ECG Second degree AV block: ECG criteria, clinical characteristics & management In this chapter, the focus will be on second degree atrioventricular (AV) block…

…ECG Third degree (complete) AV block: ECG criteria, clinical characteristics and management This chapter discusses third degree AV block, which is synonymous with AV dissociation…

…no significant shunt. Clinical Relevance of Shunt Fraction Diagnosis of Shunt Severity : Quantifies the magnitude of intracardiac shunts, distinguishing hemodynamically significant defects from incidental findings…

…Emergency medicine Procedurer Definition and Pathophysiology Cardiac tamponade is a life threatening clinical syndrome in which increased intrapericardial pressure compresses the heart and impairs ventricular…