…liver disease, especially when combined with diuretics (risk of fluid retention and impaired kidney function). Patients with bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, hay fever…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Chronic coronary syndromes (CCS) comprise the clinical manifestations of chronic structural and/or functional disease involving the…

…and improve symptoms, functional capacity and quality of life. The underlying aetiology is heterogeneous. Chronic heart failure evaluation should therefore seek reversible or treatable causes…

…Definition and pathophysiology Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined by abnormalities of renal structure or function that persist for more than 3 months and have…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology A chronic total occlusion (CTO) is a complete or nearly complete coronary arterial obstruction that has persisted for…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

…is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction, immune cell recruitment, extracellular matrix remodelling, and thrombosis interact…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Obesity is a chronic, relapsing and biologically complex disease characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. It is an…

…artery disease Chronic coronary syndromes (CCS) Stable coronary artery disease (CAD), frequently referred to as stable angina pectoris , has traditionally been defined and managed as…

…Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by the subendothelial accumulation of…