…and paroxysmal cases are common in clinical practice. Chronic flutter is, however, very rare. Thus, as compared with atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter is not capable…

…which is a chronic inflammatory disease of the arteries. It has become increasingly clear in the past few decades that atherosclerosis is not caused by…

…Thus, the presence of non obstructive epicardial arteries does not exclude a coronary cause of symptoms. CCS is a clinical syndrome rather than a permanently…

…fatigue and oedema. This definition does not depend on left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) is defined by the…

Cardiology Nephrology Definition and pathophysiology Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined by abnormalities of renal structure or function that persist for more than 3 months…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology A chronic total occlusion (CTO) is a complete or nearly complete coronary arterial obstruction that has persisted for…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Obesity is a chronic, relapsing and biologically complex disease characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. It is an…

Cardiology Evaluation and management of stable coronary artery disease Chronic coronary syndromes (CCS) Stable coronary artery disease (CAD), frequently referred to as stable angina pectoris…