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Chronic Coronary Syndrome: Diagnosis and Initial Evaluation

…angina, angina or ischaemia with non obstructive coronary arteries (ANOCA/INOCA), post ACS or post revascularization states, and heart failure of ischaemic or cardiometabolic origin…

Chronic Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction: Four-Pillar Therapy

…fatigue and oedema. This definition does not depend on left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) is defined by the…

Chronic Kidney Disease as a Cardiovascular Risk Factor

…73 m² Abnormal urinalysis or renal imaging Risk of progression rises with proteinuria and depends on cause 2 60 mL/min/1.73 m² Abnormal…

Percutaneous Coronary Intervention for Chronic Total Occlusions: Indications and Outcomes

…presentation and symptoms A CTO may be asymptomatic and identified during angiography performed for another indication. When clinically significant, it may present with chronic angina…

ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction (STEMI): Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

Atherosclerosis: Pathogenesis from Fatty Streak to Plaque Rupture

…is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction, immune cell recruitment, extracellular matrix remodelling, and thrombosis interact…

Obesity and Cardiovascular Disease: Assessment and Treatment

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Obesity is a chronic, relapsing and biologically complex disease characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. It is an…

Coronary Artery Disease

…Virtually all patients with STE ACS exhibit elevated troponin levels, and are thereby diagnosed as ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) . Chronic Coronary Syndromes (CCS) Coronary…

Non-ST Elevation Acute Myocardial Infarction (NSTEMI) and Unstable Angina

…Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by the subendothelial accumulation of…

Stable Coronary Artery Disease (Angina Pectoris): Diagnosis, Evaluation, Management

…Virtually all patients with STE ACS exhibit elevated troponin levels, and are thereby diagnosed as ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) . Chronic Coronary Syndromes (CCS) Coronary…

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