…Thus, the presence of non obstructive epicardial arteries does not exclude a coronary cause of symptoms. CCS is a clinical syndrome rather than a permanently…

…fatigue and oedema. This definition does not depend on left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) is defined by the…

Cardiology Nephrology Definition and pathophysiology Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined by abnormalities of renal structure or function that persist for more than 3 months…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology A chronic total occlusion (CTO) is a complete or nearly complete coronary arterial obstruction that has persisted for…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

…fibrous cap; positive remodelling; neovascularization; intraplaque haemorrhage; adventitial inflammation; spotty calcification. Nevertheless, the presence of these features does not imply inevitable clinical disruption. Fewer than…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Obesity is a chronic, relapsing and biologically complex disease characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. It is an…

Cardiology Evaluation and management of stable coronary artery disease Chronic coronary syndromes (CCS) Stable coronary artery disease (CAD), frequently referred to as stable angina pectoris…

Introduction to Coronary Atherosclerosis, Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by…

ECG Evaluation and management of stable coronary artery disease Chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) Stable coronary artery disease (CAD), frequently referred to as stable angina pectoris…