…be monitored according to clinical practice. Special attention should be given to patients ≥ 75 years, those with moderate/severe renal impairment, and those concurrently treated…

…remain stable for prolonged periods, but chronic coronary disease can progress or destabilize abruptly, leading to an acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Clinical manifestations may therefore…

…exercise tolerance Peripheral oedema Symptoms related to fluid retention and worsening congestion The clinical course may be chronic and relatively stable or punctuated by episodes…

…comparable renal impairment. The cardiovascular burden of CKD extends beyond CAD to peripheral arterial disease, cerebrovascular disease, valvular heart disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology A chronic total occlusion (CTO) is a complete or nearly complete coronary arterial obstruction that has persisted for…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

…a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction, immune cell recruitment, extracellular matrix remodelling, and thrombosis interact to…

…modified in some populations. Cardiometabolic mechanisms Visceral and ectopic fat are particularly relevant to cardiovascular risk. Excess adipose tissue promotes: Chronic, low grade systemic inflammation…

…artery disease Chronic coronary syndromes (CCS) Stable coronary artery disease (CAD), frequently referred to as stable angina pectoris , has traditionally been defined and managed as…

Introduction to Coronary Atherosclerosis, Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by…