…Clinical presentation and assessment Identifying tobacco exposure Every cardiovascular assessment should establish: Current smoking status. Cigarettes smoked per day. Duration of smoking and cumulative exposure…

…diet, physical inactivity, and alcohol consumption. Additional considerations include psychosocial stress, obstructive sleep apnoea, social determinants of health, air pollution, family history, ethnicity, and frailty…

…phenotypic expression complicate risk prediction. Familial clustering may also reflect shared environmental or behavioural factors rather than a single gene disorder. This distinction is important…

…the behavior of the pacemaker at low and high heart rate, the behavior of the pacemaker in the presence and absence of intrinsic cardiac activity…