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Heart Failure With Mildly Reduced Ejection Fraction

…others have features overlapping with HFpEF, including abnormalities of LV relaxation and filling. Hypertension and diabetes can contribute to the development of heart failure in…

Atrial Fibrillation in the Critically Ill Patient

…Proposed explanations in the source material include cardiac memory after abnormal ventricular activation, transient rate related conduction abnormalities, pacing related repolarization changes, and inadequate coronary…

Assessment of the pupillary reflex in cardiac arrest

…result, pupils often dilate widely within 30–120 seconds of cardiac arrest and light reactivity is lost when cerebral blood flow ceases. In other words…

ST segment depression in myocardial ischemia and differential diagnoses

…on the other hand, the ST segment depressions are secondary findings and the primary findings are the ST segment elevations. As explained in the previous…

Acute Pulmonary Embolism: Risk Stratification and Reperfusion

…these abnormalities in the presence of abnormal clinical risk assessment. Low risk PE is characterized by clinical low risk features, negative cardiac biomarkers, and no…

The Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction: Types 1–5

…except in type 2 and type 3 MI. A diagnosis of MI should not be made solely from an abnormal cTn concentration in the absence…

Interpretation of myocardial perfusion images (Myocardial SPECT / PET)

…defects and differentiate between normal and abnormal patterns. Reverse redistribution (RR) Reverse redistribution (RR) in SPECT myocardial perfusion imaging is an unusual phenomenon in which…

Sinus bradycardia: definitions, ECG, causes and management

…SB in healthy young individuals who are not well trained. This is also a normal finding. Abnormal (pathological) causes of sinus bradycardia In all other…

Mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias: from automaticity to re-entry (reentry)

…the sinoatrial node) is a common finding in athletes and during sleep; in these scenarios, it should not be considered abnormal. On the other hand…

Quiz: ECG in athletes

…6. Which of the following ECG findings is generally considered a normal variant in asymptomatic athletes and typically does not require further evaluation, assuming no…

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